HO 


4^.^  <S.  >i^^^^-^^— 


t/M^i^^U-^/JW         /      ^    f     O 


THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 


HIGHWAY    FKOM    UTSUXOMIYA   TO    NIKKO. 


Frontispiece. 


THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 

AND 

ITS   ECONOMIC  CONDITIONS 


BY 

JOSEPH    D'AUTREMER 

LECTURER    AT   THE    SCHOOL    OF   ORIENTAL    LANGUAGES,    PARIS 


TRANSLATED    FROM    THE    FRENCH 


WITH    A    MAP    AND    20   ILLUSTRATIONS 


NEW   YORK:    CHARLES   SCRIBNER'S   SONS 

LONDON:    T.    FISHER   UNWIN 

1910 


{All  rights  reserved.) 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I 

PAGE 
.       17 


18 

19 
20 
21 
28 


I.     The  Empire  of  Japan     . 

II.     Geographical  Situation  ;  Development  of  Coasts  ;  Superficies  ; 
Population 

in.    Climate     .... 
IV.    Atmospheric  Humidity  . 
V.    Geographical  System  ;  Volcanoes 
VI.    Hydrography;  Rivers  and  Lakes 

CHAPTER  n 

I.    Aborigines  and  Conquerors        .  .           .           .            .33 

II.    Chinese  Influx;  Mongols;   Ainus  .            .            .            .34 

III.    Present-day  Japanese  Type        .  .            .            .            .35 

rV.    Before  and  After  the  Revolution  of  1868;   Aristocracy  and 

People ....  ...            .35 

V.    Japanese  Constitution;  the  Government         .  .           .37 

VI.    Justice;  Courts  .           .  ....    40 

Vn.    Law  of  Finance  ;  Budget          .  .           .           .           .41 

Vni.    Electoral  Law     .           .           .  .           .           .           .42 

IX.    Emperor  and  Patriotism            .  .            .            .            .42 

X.    The  Nation:    its  Smile  and  its  Dissimulation;    Character 

of  the  Japanese          .            .  .            .            .            .43 

ZI.    Religion  and  Superstition          .  .           .           .           .46 

Xn.    Foieigners  in  Japan       .  ....    49 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTEE  III 

I. 

Provinces  and  Districts     .... 

PAGE 

.     51 

n. 

The  Three  "Shi"  . 

.     52 

m. 

The  Forty-five  "  Ken  "      . 

.     55 

IV. 

Eed  Tape  Administration. 

.     61 

V. 

Principal  Ports       ..... 
CHAPTER  IV 

.     62 

I.  Land  and  Sea  Routes  from  Europe  to  Japan  ;  the  Siberian 
Railway;  the  Navigation  Companies  which  carry  on  the 
Service    .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .66 


n.    Price  of  Passages  ;  Japanese  Coasts 
in.    Inner  Sea  to  Kobe;  from  Kobe  to  Yokohama  . 


69 

71 


rv.    Route  from  America  and  Companies  making  the   Service  of 

the  Pacific  .  .  .  .  .  .  .76 

V.     Sad  Aspect  of  the  Japanese  Towns  for  those  Disembarking    .     77 


CHAPTER  V 
I.    Native  Life  ;   Food  .  .  .  .  .  .79 

II.     Cost  of  Life  in  Japan  :  Dearness  of  Living  and  Rent  .     80 

III.  Hotels  in  the  European  Fashion .  .  .  .  .81 

IV.  The  Japanese  Family,  its  Constitution  and  Manners  ;  Situation 

of  the  Women  and  Children    .  .  .  .  .82 


CHAPTER  VI 

I.  Population  :  Its  Density  ;  Expansion 

II.  Some  Figures 

III.  Distribution  of  the  Population     . 

IV.  Towns  above  100,000  Inhabitants 

V.    Emigration  to  Hokkaido  (Isle  of  Yezo) 


.  97 
.  98 
.  99 
.  102 
.  102 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER   VII 

I.  Tokyo,  the  Capital 

II.  Localities  to  Visit 

III.  Environs  of  Tokyo 

IV.  The  Fuji-yama 

V.  Sendai  and  the  Towns  of  the  North 

VI.  Nagoya,  Kyoto,  Nara 

VII.  Osaka  and  the  Towns  of  the  South 


PAGE 

.  104 
.  105 
.  106 
.  108 
.  109 
.  110 
.  112 


CHAPTER  VIII 

I. 

Weights  and  Measures   .... 

.  115 

n. 

Currency  ...... 

.  117 

III. 

Posts         ...... 

.  117 

IV. 

Telegraphs            ..... 

.  121 

V. 

Postal,  Telegraphic,  and  Telephonic  Condition  on 

December 

31,  1907           

.  122 

VI. 

Public  Education            .... 

.  123 

VII. 

Press  :  Journals  and  Reviews     . 

.  125 

VIII. 

Courts  and  Tribunals      .... 
CHAPTER  IX 

.  125 

I.    Army:  French  and  German  Instructors 


127 


II.    Navy  :    French   Instructors    and    Engineers  ;    English  Pro- 
fessors ........  128 

III.  System  of    Recruiting  ;    Latest   Modifications  ;    Present-day 

Reorganisation  ;    Increase   of    the   Divisions    and   of   the 
Artillery  .  .  .  .  .  .  .128 

IV.  Present  State  of  the  Navy  :  Building  Projects  .  .  138 
V.    Conclusion            .......  140 


8 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  X 

I.  Agriculture  :   Area  of  Rice-fields 

II.  Total  Production  in  Cereals 

III.  Different  Kinds  of  Rice  .... 

IV.  Haricot,  Maize,  Potatoes,  DifEerent  Vegetables 
V.  Spices  and  Condiments   .... 

VI.  Divisions  of  the  Land    .... 

VII.  Silk  and  Culture  of  the  Mulberry 

VIII.  Tea  Culture  ..... 

IX.  Horses  and  Cattle  .... 

X.  Fruits       ...... 

XI.  Isle  of  Yezo  (Hokkaido)  and  the  Colonisation 


FÂGB 

.  141 
.  142 
.  143 
.  144 
.  146 
.  146 
.  147 
.  148 
.  149 
.  151 
.  153 


CHAPTER  XI 

I.  Fisheries  . 

II.  Fishing  Boats  :  the  Takings 

III.  Fish  Prizes  in  the  High  Sea 

IV.  Marine  Fish 
V.  Salt  and  Salines  . 

VI.  Forests     . 

VII.  Some  of  the  most  Common  Woods  in  Japan 

VIII.  The  Forest  of  Kisogawa,  Crown  Land 

IX.  Camphor   ...... 

X,  Mushrooms  .  .  .  .  . 


.  155 
.  158 
.  159 
.  160 
.  161 
.  162 
.  164 
.  169 
.  170 
.  171 


CHAPTER  XII 
I.    Industries  in  the  Past     . 
II.    Silk:   Its  début  in  Japan 


178 
174 


CONTENTS 


m.  Weaving  and  Spinning  of  Silk  . 

rV.  Industry  of  Dyeing 

V.  Pottery      ..... 

VI.  Faience  of  Satsuma  ;   Porcelain  from  Owari 

Vn.  Metal  Industry    .... 

VIII.  Lacquer    ..... 

IX.  Fans,  Screens,  Sculpture  on  Wood  and  Ivory 

X.  Japanese  Art       .  .  .  .  . 


PASS 

.  175 
.  177 
.  178 
.  180 
.  181 
.  183 
.  191 
.  191 


CHAPTER  Xin 

I.  The  New  Industries 

II.  Industrial  Societies  existing  To- 

m.  Difierent  Forms  of  Enterprise 

IV.  Principal  Weaving  Districts 

V.  Ceramic  Industry;  Lacquer;  Matches 

VI.  Leather     . 

VII.  Preserved  Foods;  Paper 

Vni.  Manufactories  of  the  State 


IX.    Japanese  Eivalry;  Employment 
Country 

X.    Wages  and  Salaries 

XI.    Retrospective  Sketch 


of  European 


Capital 


.  193 
.  194 
.  195 
.  196 
.  198 
.  199 
.  200 
.  202 


in  the 


202 
205 
207 


CHAPTER  XIV 

I.     Trade    of    Japan   with    Foreigners  ;    Habutai,    Kaiki,    Silk 

Depots  .  .  .  .  .  .  .211 

n.    Export  of  Tea      .  .  .  .  .  .  .215 

in.    Export  of  Rice    .  .  .  .  .  .  .216 

IV.    Japanese  Coal       .......  217 


10 


CONTENTS 


V.    Copper       ..... 

VI.    Camphor,  Straw  Mats,  Sake,  Cigarettes 

VII.    Cotton        ..... 


FAGB 

.  218 
.  218 

.  221 


VIII.  Importation  of  Eaw  Cotton,  woollen  things,  mousselines  de 
laine  ;  the  situation  of  Prance  relatively  to  the  impor- 
tation of  this  latter  ;  Rice  in  Indo-Ohina  ;  Metals  and 
Machines  .......  222 


IX.  French  Imports    .... 

X.  The  Japanese  Trader       .  .  . 

XI.  Imports  and  Exports  of  the  Principal  Ports 

Xn.  Japanese  Merchant  Service 

XIII.  French  Steamships 

XIV.  Custom  Tarifi       .... 


.  226 
.  228 
.  228 
.  231 
.  231 


CHAPTER  XV 
I.    Routes;   Railways  ......  234 

II.     State  V.  Companies;    Purchase  of  Lines  by  the  State    and 

Nationalisation  of  the  Railway        ....  238 


III.  Principal  Lines    . 

IV.  Tramways 

V.    Tariff  of  Railways 


2U 
245 
247 


CHAPTER  XVI 

I.  Mines  ;   in  Antiquity  ;  in  the  Fifteenth  Century 

II.  Geology;   soil       .... 

III.  Exploiting  of  Mines 

IV.  Some  Coal  Mines 
V.  Petroleum  .... 

VI.  Various  :  Graphite,  Sulphur,  &c. 


.  248 
.  250 
.  251 
.  252 
.  255 
.  256 


CONTENTS 


11 


VII.  Miners  ;   Regulations  of  Mines 

VIII.  Administration  of  the  Mines      .... 

IX.  The  Mines  in  1908  ;    Socialism  amongst  the  Workmen 

X.  Yield  of  Copper  and  Coal  .... 


PAGE 

.  257 
.  261 
.  262 
.  264 


CHAPTER  XVn 

I.  Japanese  Finance  ;   Generalities 

II.  Organisation  of  To-day 

III.  The  Budget  and  Taxes 

IV.  Public  Debt  ;   Loans 
V.  Local  Finance 

VI.  Banks 

VII.  Assurance  Companies 

VIII.  Doctors;   Public  Hygiene;  Public  Assistance 


267 
268 
269 
275 
276 
277 
279 


CHAPTER   XVIII 

I.    Political  Japan  and  its  Future  . 
II.     Commercial  and  Industrial  Japan  and  its  Future 


281 

284 


CHAPTER  XIX 

I. 

The  Japanese  Colonies;  Formosa 

.  287 

II. 

Finance     ..... 

.  293 

III. 

Monopolies 

.  296 

IV. 

Banks         ..... 

.  297 

V. 

Trade         ..... 

.  297 

VI. 

Agriculture  and  Industries 

.  298 

VII. 

Saghalien  and  Kwang-Tung 

.  299 

12  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XX 

FÂOB 

I.    Korea  of  Former  Times  and  To-day  ;   the  Establishment  of 

the  Japanese  Protectorate      .....  301 

n.    The  Resident  General  and  his  Powers.  .  .  .  304 

III.  Financial  Reform  ;   Taxes  ;   Banks         ....  304 

IV.  The  Japanese  in  Korea;  Agricultural  and  Industrial  Societies; 

Culture  and  Breeding  .....  307 

V.     Korea;  Its  Industry  and  Future  .  .  ,  309 

VI.    Trade  ;  Imports  and  Exports  for  1908 .  .  .  .310 

Ikdez       ........  318 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

Highway  feom  Utsunomiya  to  Nikkô  ,  .  Frontispiece 

TO  FACE  PAGK 

Paek  at  Hakone    (See  page  32)  .  .  .  .  .17 

Haiey  Ainus         .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .33 

The  Loweb  Chambee  op  the  Diet  (House  of  Representatives)      .    41 
The  Buddhist  Image  at  Kamakuea    .  .  .  .  .47 

Entrance  op  the  Temple  op  Kiyomiza  at  Kyoto    .  .  .78 

A  Meal      ...  .  .  .  .    88 

A  Buddhist  Puneeal  en  Humble  Life  .  .  .  .94 

In  the  Gaeden  op  an  Ancient  Buddhist  Temple  .  .  .94 

View  op  Kyoto    .......  97 

View  op  Fuji  peom  Atami         ......  108 

The  Castle  op  Nagoya  ......  110 

ToEii  AND  Pagoda  bepoee  the  Peecincts  op  Ieyabu  .  .  114 

"Hall  op  the  Theee  Buddhas,"  Nikkô       ....  114 

A  Swoed-makeb   ........  181 

A  MouiiTAiN  Village     .  .  .       •    .  .  .  .  234 

Rooms  in  an  Inn,  pormerly  a  Daimyô's  Residence  .  .  234 

Gate  Leading  to  the  Peecincts  op  Iemitsu  .  .  .  245 

Lake  Chusenji    .  ......  245 

Nikkô  :  Avenue  op  Buddhist  Tombs  .....  280 

13 


PRINCIPAL  GEOGRAPHICAL  TERMS 

Yama  =  mountain. 

San  =  mountain. 

Take  or  dake     =  summit. 
Saki  =  café. 

Toge  =  peninsula. 

Kawa  or  gawa  =  river,  stream. 
Hara  =  plain. 

Ura  =  bay. 

Nada  =  basin,  gulf. 

Seto  =  straits. 

Umi  =  sea. 

Shima  or  jima  =  island. 


PRINCIPAL  MEASURES 

1  Chô  =  358  feet  or  ^'-^  of  a  mile  ;    36  chô  =  1  ri. 

1  Ri  =  2-44  English  miles. 

1  Ken  =  6  feet;  60  ken  =  1  chô. 

1  Shaku  =  1  foot  (nearly). 

1  Sun  =  about  1  inch  ;    10  sun  =  1  shaku. 

1  Bu  =  î'ô  of  1  sun. 

1  Jo  =10  English  feet. 


LAND  MEASURE 

1  Tsubo  =  4  sq.  yards  English. 

1  Chô      =  2^  acres  and  1  ri  sq.  =  6  sq.  miles  (approximately). 

15 


16         WEIGHTS   AND   MEASURES 


CAPACITY 

1  To       =  "10  sho  =  nearly  J  a  bushel,  or  for  liquids  4  gallcms. 
1  Koku  =  10  to     =  fraction  less  than  5  English  bushels. 


WEIGHT 

Kin  =  IJ  lb.  avoir. 

Momme  About  120  momma  =  1  lb.  avoir. 

Kwan  or  Kwamm  =  1,000  momme  =  6|  kin  =  6 J  lb. 


PARK    AT    HAlv(.iN"K. 
(See  page  32.) 


The   Japanese    Empire    and    Its 
Economic  Conditions 


CHAPTEE  I 


I.  Empire  of  Japan — II.  Its  geographical  situation  ;  development  of 
coasts,  area,  population — III.  Climate — IV.  Atmospheric  humidity 
— V.  Orographic  system,  volcanoes — VI.  Hydrography,  rivers  and 
lakes. 


The  Empire  of  Japan  remained  unknown  to  Europe 
until  the  13th  century,  when  Rubruquis  and  Marco 
Polo  discovered  its  existence  ;  but  it  was  not  till  after 
the  arrival  of  the  Portuguese  Jesuits  in  the  Japanese 
Islands,  chat  is,  in  the  10th  century,  that  the  country 
became  a  little  more  familiar  to  Western  peoples.  It 
is  not  my  purpose  here  to  trace  the  history  of  Japan  ; 
it  will  be  sufficient  to  say  that  since  1852,  when  the 
United  States  enforced  its  demand  for  open  doors, 
down  to  our  own  day,  Japan  has  undergone  such  trans- 
formations, and  so  effectively  shaken  off  its  old  Chinese 
civilisation  in  adopting  the  European  mechanism,  that 
it  has  become  a  mihtary  and  economic,  but  above  all 
a  military,  factor  that   cannot  be  ignored  but  must  be 

reckoned  with. 

2  " 


18  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

The  foundation  of  the  Japanese  character  being  very 
warlike  and  martial  was  instrumental  for  a  long  time 
in  turning  the  nation  to  things  appertaining  to  fighting  ; 
since  the  earliest  ages  the  education  of  a  young  Japanese 
of  good  family  has  chiefly  been  of  a  military  kind. 

II 

Japan  is  situated  lengthways  on  the  north-west  of 
the  Pacific  Ocean.  It  consists  of  four  large  islands  : 
Nippon  or  Honshu,  Shikoku,  Kyushu,  Yezo  or  Hokkaido  ; 
of  a  number  of  small  ones,  amongst  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  are  :  Sado,  Oki,  Awaji,  Tsushima. 
The  little  archipelago  of  Eyûkyû  also  counts  as  an 
integral  part  of  the  Empire  ;  although  the  inhabitants 
are  not  Japanese  as  a  matter  of  fact.  In  addition,  at  the 
conclusion  of  the  war  against  China,  Japan  conquered 
the  island  of  Formosa  and  the  Pescadores  ;  and  following 
its  campaign  in  Manchuria  against  Eussia,  it  was 
successful  in  getting  reassigned  the  southern  portion  of 
the  island  of  Saghalien  or  Karafuto,  which  it  had  ceded 
to  Eussia  in  1875, 

On  the  extreme  north  of  Yezo,  Japan  possesses  the 
Kuriles  or  Chishima,  and  in  the  Pacific  the  Bonin 
group — Ogasawara  in  Japanese. 

The  whole  Empire  is  comprised  between  156°  32' 
and  120°  east  longitude,  and  22°  and  51°  north  latitude 
(east  of  Greenwich). 

It  is  separated  from  Korea  on  the  north-west  by  the 
Sea  of  Japan.  The  principal  islands — Honshu,  Shikoku, 
Kyushu,  and  Yezo  (more  familiar  to  the  Japanese  under 
the  name  of  Hokkaido),  with  the  Kuriles,  the  islands  of 
Sado,  Oki,  Awaji,  Aki,  Tsushima,  the  Eyûkyû,  and  the 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  19 

Bonin  (or  Ogasawara)  Islands,  have  a  coast  extension  of 
17,000  miles,  with  Formosa  and  the  Pescadores,  17,423 
miles.  Up  to  the  present,  precise  recordings  of  the 
Japanese  portion  of  Saghalien  (Karafuto)  have  not 
been  made.  The  area  of  the  Japanese  territory  is 
about  170,000  square  miles.  In  1906  (39th  year  Meiji) 
there  was  a  population  of  47,674,471  inhabitants,  of 
which  24,047,953  were  men  and  23,626,518  women. 

On  December  20,  1908,  there  were  49,232,822  inhabi- 
tants, 24,864,385  being  men  and  24,368,437  women. 

Ill 

Japan  is  very  long  and  very  narrow.  The  climate  is 
affected  by  this  configuration,  and  whilst  in  the  north  the 
winter  is  very  severe,  in  the  south,  on  the  contrary,  the 
heat  in  summer  is  excessive;  generally  speaking,  how- 
ever, the  climate  is  temperate,  but  extremely  enervating 
for  Europeans,  especially  for  women.  Suicide  and  neuras- 
thenia are  comparatively  frequent  amongst  the  white 
population. 

From  the  physical  standpoint  Japan  can  be  divided 
into  three  zones  :  Northern  Zone,  island  of  Yezo  and  the 
north  of  Honshu  to  the  bay  of  Sendai  ;  Central  Zone, 
from  the  bay  of  Sendai  to  Yokohama  and  the  bay  of 
Yedo  ;  the  Southern  Zone,  from  the  bay  of  Yedo  to  the 
extreme  point  of  Kyushu. 

The  Northern  Zone,  as  I  have  just  indicated,  is  very 
cold  in  winter  ;  snow  falls  in  abundance  then  and  ice  is 
permanent.  The  Central  Zone  is  more  temperate,  but 
the  seasons  are  not  as  clearly  defined  as  in  Central 
Europe,  and  there  is  always,  even  in  winter,  a  certain 
humidity  ;  the  summers  are  exceedingly  hot  except  upon 


20 


THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 


the  heights;  thus  in  the  plain  of  Tokyo  the  thermometer 
reaches  to  99°.* 

As  to  the  Southern  Zone,  it  is  distinctly  less  cold  in 
winter  and  much  hotter  in  summer;  in  its  extreme 
southerly  portion,  that  is  to  say,  towards  Nagasaki  and 
Kagoshima,  it  is  unbearably  hot  in  summer. 

rv 

All  three  zones  are  subject  to  the  rainstorms  of  the 
south-west  monsoon,  and  the  months  of  July  and  August 
are  generally  as  wet  there  as  in  the  Tropics  ;  the  harvests 
are  often  devastated  by  inundations.  Thus  the  average 
rainfall  is  considerable. 


Per  cent. 

Per  cent 

Kagoshima 

..       76 

Tokyo      

...       73 

Kochi       

..       75 

Kanazawa 

...      79 

Osaka       

..       73 

Aki           

...      78 

Nagasaki 

..       75 

Ishinomaki 

...       80 

Shimonoseki 

..      77 

Hakodate 

...       77 

Saikyo      

..      80 

Nemuro 

...      81 

As  shown  by  the  table  below,  one  may  tabulate  the 
rainfall  of  the  country  thus  : — 


Kagoshima 

TTnphi 



Osaka   ... 

Nagasaki 

Shimonoseki 

Saikyo  ... 

Tokyo  ... 



Kanazawa 

Nagano 



Âkita    ... 

.. 

Number  of 

Eainy  Days. 

178 

Clear 

Weather 

61 

146 

49 

145 

40 

168 

36 

174 

34 

225 

23 

134 

54 

235 

23 

176 

30 

224 

11 

*  The  atmospheric  pressure  having  been  reduced  to  the  average  sea- 
level  and  corrected  by  the  variation  in  gravity. 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 


21 


Ishinomaki 

Hakodate 

Nemuro 


Number  of 

Rainy  Days. 

174 

203 

140 


Clear 

Weather. 

36 

29 

46 


This  record  is  for  1906.* 

It  is  clear,  then,  that  for  the  European,  Httle  accus- 
tomed to  a  humid  soil,  the  climate  of  Japan,  in  spite  of 
all  that  has  been  said  of  it,  is  not  the  climate  par  excel- 
lence ;  it  is  notably  inferior  to  that  of  China.  Euro- 
peans who  have  resided  for  a  length  of  time  in  Japan 
and  reached  old  age  there  are  much  more  rare  than  in 
China.  From  the  picturesque  point  of  view,  however, 
for  beauty  of  luxuriant  and  blooming  landscape,  Japan  is 
greatly  superior  to  China. 

In  the  following  table  is  given  the  maximum  and 
minimum  temperature  recorded  in  1906  : — 


Kagoshima 
Kochi  . . . 
Osaka  ... 
Nagasaki 
Shimonoseki 
Saikyo  ... 
Tokyo  ... 
Kanazawa 
Nagano  ... 
Âkita 

Ishinomaki 
Hakodate 
Nemuro... 


Maximum. 

Minimum 

33°  t 

l°t 

35 

5 

35 

3 

33 

2 

34 

6 

32 

4 

32 

4 

34 

5 

33 

16 

33 

15 

30 

11 

28 

19 

28 

21 

An  essentially  mountainous  country,  Japan  is  traversed 
from   north   to  south   by   a  system  of  mountain  chains 


*  The  days  of  snow,  frost,  &c.,  are  not  taken  into  account  here. 
t  Centigrade. 


22  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

and  peaks,  some  of  which,  fairly  elevated,  ramify  in  all 
directions.  The  principal  chain  divides  in  the  north 
of  Honshu,  and  stretches  over  Tokyo,  and  from  there 
over  Kyoto  and  Shimonoseki,  cutting,  so  to  speak,  in  two 
the  great  island  and  dividing  its  control  of  the  waters 
by  two  well-marked  watersheds — west-northerly,  east- 
southerly— in  the  direction  of  west  to  east  from  Aomori, 
at  the  extreme  north-east  point,  down  to  Akamagaseki, 
at  the  south-west  extremity  of  the  province  of  Chôshû. 

From  this  main  chain  secondary  ranges  detach  them- 
selves, one  of  which  runs  towards  Izu  (almost  an 
island),  at  Cape  Irozaki  ;  another  towards  Wakayama, 
at  Cape  Shiomisaki  (south  of  the  island)  ;  whilst  a  third 
stretches  towards  Noto  by  Cape  Eokkezai  (on  the  Sea  of 
Japan).  The  southern  islands,  Shikoku  and  Kyushu,  are 
alike  divided  along  their  whole  extent  into  two  parts 
by  a  chain  of  mountains,  which  slopes  into  Shikoku 
from  the  north-east  (Tokushima)  to  the  south-west 
(Cape  Ashizurimisaki)  ;  and  in  Kyushu  from  the  north 
(Kokura)  to  the  south,  where  it  divides  into  two  branches 
(Cape  Nomo  on  the  west  and  Cape  Satami  on  the  east). 

The  great  island  of  Yezo  presents  the  same  moun- 
tainous character  to  be  found  everywhere  else  in  the 
Empire.  But  the  chain  of  mountains  traversing  it  does 
not  divide  into  two  sharply-defined  declivities,  but  into 
what  might  be  called  four  slopes,  taking  as  the  central 
point  the  summit  of  Tokachidaké  (10,000  feet,  roughly). 

From  Tokachidaké  a  chain  extends  bearing  northwards 
at  Cape  Soya  ;  this  chain  includes  Mount  Ishikari,  the 
second  height  in  the  island  (8,000  feet). 

Another  chain  extends  from  the  same  point  in  a  north- 
easterly direction,  where  it  separates  into  two  branches, 
terminating  in   Capes  Shire-ko-zaki   and   Noshafuzaki  ; 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE  23 

finally,  a  third  chain,  starting  also  from  Tokachidaké, 
extends  towards  the  south  and  terminates  in  Cape 
Yerimisaki.  Westwards,  between  Tokachidaké  and  the 
town  of  Sapporo,  there  lies  the  plain  of  Sapporo,  formed 
by  a  deep  depression,  where  the  major  part  of  the 
Japanese  emigration  up  to  now  has  gone. 

West  of  Sapporo  by  Cape  Kamoimi-saki  the  ground 
rises,  and  then  extends  from  this  cape  right  to  Hakodate, 
the  extreme  southerly  point  of  the  island,  another  range 
of  mountains  cutting  into  two  parts  this  portion  of  the 
island.  The  whole  extent  of  this  mountain  system  is 
marked  by  elevated  peaks,  both  in  the  north  and  south, 
some  of  them  attaining  the  height  of  between  6,000  feet 
and  9,900  feet. 

In  the  north  of  the  province  of  Mutsu  (district  of 
Tsugaru)  may  be  mentioned  Iwaki-san  (5,260  feet),  called 
also  "Tsugaru  no  fugi,"  or  " Fugi  of  Tsugaru,"  because 
of  its  resemblance  in  shape  to  the  Fuji  ;  it  is  famous 
throughout  the  district. 

Tateyama,  in  the  province  of  Kikuchû. 

Osore-zan  (the  mountain  which  creates  fear)  is  an 
active  volcano  in  the  province  of  Mutsu,  district  of 
Kitagori. 

Chokai-zan  (4,308  feet),  in  the  province  of  Ugo,  district 
of  Akumi. 

Gwassan  (5,610  feet),  province  of  Uzen,  district  of 
Tagawa. 

lide-san  (3,960  feet),  a  chain  rather  than  a  peak 
extending  through  the  provinces  of  Iwashiro  and 
Echigo. 

Nikkô-zan,  the  mountains  of  Nikko,  have  a  height  of 
nearly  6,600  feet,  and  with  the  Fuji  and  the  Asama  are 
the  most  celebrated  mountains  of  Japan. 


24  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

They  are  the  highest  mountains  in  the  province  of 
Shimotzuke,  and  they  are  also  known  as  Futaharayama 
or  Kurokamiyama.  They  are  crowned  by  their  chief 
height,  the  Nantai-zan,  situated  on  the  north-west  of  the 
district  of  Kami-tsugi-you  ;  on  the  north-east  the 
Nyoho-zan  continue  the  chain  ;  and  upon  the  eastern 
slope,  which  is  almost  sheer,  are  to  be  found  the 
seven  cascades  (nana  taki)  from  which  the  Inarigawa 
takes  its  source.  The  two  plateaux  of  0-manago  and 
Ko-manago  lie  between  these  two  points. 

North  of  0-manago  the  solitary  peak  of  Taro-zan  rises, 
and  east  of  Nyohô-zan  the  Akanagi  chain  extends.  Bear- 
ing away  from  this  chain,  upon  the  northern  bank  of  the 
Inarigawa,  the  hill  called  Toyama  can  be  discerned, 
which  whilst  not  being  particularly  elevated  has  a 
character  of  its  own,  as  it  stands  solitary  and  isolated 
in  the  centre  of  the  group.  East  of  it  is  found  the 
Ogurayama  ;  the  Konosuyama  rise  to  the  south  of  the 
river  Daiyagawa,  and  west  of  this  river  the  raised 
plateau  of  Nakimushi  is  discernible.  Towards  the 
middle  of  this  chain  the  plateaux  of  Tsukimi,  Matsutate, 
Ni  no  Mya  extend  in  a  straight  line. 

Half-way  up  the  Futaharayama  there  is  a  temple,  and 
the  ancient  temple  of  Chusenji  is  to  be  found  about  nine 
miles  from  the  foot  of  this  mountain.  The  lake  there, 
which  is  very  cold  and  very  deep,  is  named  the  Lake  of 
Happiness  (Sutsu  no  umi)  ;  it  is  very  famous,  and  the 
largest  lake  in  the  environs  of  Nikkô.  In  the  east  of 
the  lake  the  water  falls  perpendicularly,  forming  the 
cascade,  and  the  torrent  in  which  it  issues  forth  is  the 
Daiyagawa  itself.  On  the  north-west  of  the  Futuhara 
mountains  the  Yugatahe  rises,  with  thermal  springs  lying 
at    its    base    (Yu=warm    waters).     What    has    been 


THE  JAPA:NESE   empire  25 

enumerated  above  forms  the  inner  chain  system  of  the 
group  of  mountains  of  Nikko. 

Outwards  on  the  north  the  Koshin-zan  rises,  and  the 
two  Shirane  bordering  Kotzuke  and  Shimotzuke  at  the 
pass  of  Konsei-toge  (Inaye=in  front,  oku= behind). 
North-east  of  these  latter  the  Kinunuma  mountains  lie, 
with  numberless  lakes  and  pools.  It  was  in  these 
mountains,  with  their  fine  scenery  and  native  splendour, 
that  two  of  the  Shoguns  *  desired  to  be  buried.  This 
explains  why  a  countless  number  of  temples  and 
monasteries  are  to  be  found  there  to-day. 

The  Tsukuba-zan,  though  of  moderate  height,  are 
peculiar  in  formation.  They  overlook  the  districts  of 
Tsukuba,  Nubari,  and  Makabe  in  the  province  of  Hitachi. 
The  Bandai-san  mountain,  which  rises  north  of  Lake 
Inawashiro,  was  for  a  long  time  believed  to  be  an  extinct 
volcano,  but  on  July  14,  1888,  it  became  active  and 
destroyed  numerous  villages,  the  inhabitants  of  which 
were  buried  beneath.! 

The  Fuji-san  or  Fujiyama  mountain  is  12,400  feet 
high.  This  mountain  might  well  be  called  the  sacred 
mountain  of  Japan.  Graceful  and  regular  in  form  (with 
the  exception  of  a  slightly-broken  outline  on  one  side), 
it  has  been  at  all  times  the  object  of  worship  and  adora- 
tion by  all  Japanese.  Though  extinct  at  the  present 
moment,  the  mountain  has  had  several  eruptions  in 
earlier  periods,  notably  about  799  a.d.,  and  also  in  863. 

The  last  eruption  took  place  in  the  fifth  month  of  the 

•  A  Shogun  is  a  general-in-chief,  lieutenant  of  the  Mikado.  It  was 
to  him  Europeans  gave  the  name  of  Tai-kun,  and  with  whom  they  made 
their  first  treaties. 

t  The  effect  of  the  eruption  made  itself  felt  as  far  distant  as  Tokyo, 
where  I  was  staying  at  the  time,  the  town  having  been  violently 
shaken. 


26  THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 

Hoei  period  (1706).  It  was  owing  to  this  that  the 
name  of  Hoei-zan  was  given  to  the  Httle  elevation  upon 
one  of  the  mountain  sides  (to  the  south-east)  indicated 
above.  The  crater  assumed  its  present  form  at  the 
same  date,  in  belching  forth  great  volumes  of  ashes, 
which  the  wind  carried  as  far  as  Yedo. 

Every  summer  during  the  month  of  August  Fuji  is 
a  much-frequented  place  of  pilgrimage  ;  millions  of  men 
and  women  draped  entirely  in  white  garments  make  the 
ascension  of  the  mountain,  armed  with  a  stick.  The 
mountains  of  Hakone  and  the  Amagi  chain,  of  fair 
height,  strike  off  from  the  Fuji  group. 

The  most  celebrated  of  the  active  volcanoes  is  Asama- 
yama  (8,280  feet).  At  the  present  time  only  thick  smoke 
and  ashes  issue  forth  from  its  crater,  but  it  has  had 
at  times  terrible  eruptions,  and  at  any  moment  a 
recurrence  of  the  phenomena  may  be  expected.  In  1783 
notably,  the  eruption  destroyed  quantities  of  villages  and 
human  lives. 

The  Tateshi-yama  (7,590  feet)  and  the  Yatsugadaki 
(8,910  feet)  lie  to  the  south  of  Asama. 

The  San  Ontake  overlooks  the  three  provinces  of 
Shinano,  Mino,  and  Hida. 

Tateyama  (6,600  feet)  is  in  the  province  of  Etchu. 

Hakusan  (9,900  feet)  commands  a  very  extended 
view  over  the  provinces  of  Kaga,  Echizen,  Mino,  and 
Hida. 

The  Sanshogatake  is  in  the  province  of  Yamato  ;  it 
is  the  highest  peak  in  the  chain  of  mountains  of  Yoshino. 
The  ramifications  branch  off  to  join  the  chain  of  moun- 
tains of  Kumano  and  Koza  in  the  province  of  Kii. 

Unsengatake  (4,950  feet),  in  the  province  of  Hizen, 
is  an  active  volcano.     In   its  neighbourhood  are  found 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE  27 

the  sources  of  the   thermal  springs,  which  are  greatly 
resorted  to. 

In  the  island  of  Sakurajima,  in  the  province  of  Osumi, 
the  active  volcano  Sakurajimagatake  is  found. 

At  the  period  of  geological  formation,  the  volcanic 
action  must  have  been  extremely  violent,  and  from  that 
time  forward  this  action  has  continued  to  manifest  itself 
in  modern  times.  Hundreds  of  mountains  now  quies- 
cent were  formerly  sheets  of  burning  fire.  The  annals  of 
Japan  are  full  of  the  terrible  outbursts  of  ashes,  fire,  and 
lava  vomited  forth  by  the  mountains,  north  and  south, 
east  and  west  ;  millions  of  lives  were  destroyed  in  an 
instant  and  villages  swallowed  up. 

At  the  present  period  the  Japanese  reckon  that  their 
country  contams  still  about  twenty  volcanoes  in  activity, 
and  one  hundred  which  are  in  repose,  but  that  may  break 
out  at  any  moment  with  appalling  intensity.  In  1874 
the  Taromai  volcano,  in  the  island  of  Yezo,  whose  crater 
having  long  remained  cool  was  thought  inoffensive, 
broke  into  eruption,  threw  up  to  some  distance  the  crust 
enclosing  it,  and  rained  out  ashes  to  the  sea-shore. 

Asayama-yama,  never  quiet  and  constantly  throwing 
out  steam  and  smoke,  whilst  alternately  trembling  and 
thundering,  is  the  terror  of  the  surrounding  countries. 

Fuji  itself,  the  sacred  mountain  situated  so  majes- 
tically in  the  plain  of  Subashiri,  offers  no  guarantee  of 
security. 

The  Hakuzan  volcano  upon  the  west  coast,  whose 
crater  towers  above  the  mists,  is  9,900  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  and  encloses  within  its  crater  a  lake  of  the 
purest  water  ;  it  once  became  active,  and  belched  forth 
fire,  smoke,  rocks,  ashes,  and  lava. 

How  often  on  dark  nights  the  Japanese  fisherman,  a 


28  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

little  way  distant  from  the  shore,  can  discern  the  fires  of 
the  Oshima  volcano. 

In  addition  to  the  numberless  fields  full  of  scorise  that 
attest  the  volcanic  character  of  the  Japanese  soil,  sulphur 
beds  abound  everywhere,  proving  the  existence  of  sub- 
terranean fires. 

Satsuma,  Kyûkyû,  and  Yezo  are  famed  for  the  quantity 
of  sulphur  they  produce.  Enormous  blocks  of  sulphur 
issue  forth  down  the  flanks  of  Hakuzan  ;  solfataras  exist 
in  almost  all  the  provinces,  and  finally  in  the  provinces  of 
Shinano  and  Echigo  the  peasants  light  their  dwellings 
and  cook  their  rice  with  the  inflammable  gas  issuing 
from  the  earth,  which  they  utilize  for  their  needs  by 
enclosing  in  tubes. 

As  a  consequence  of  the  volcanic  character  of  the 
country  earthquakes  are  numerous,  and  often  cause 
frightful  catastrophes.  Towns  and  villages  have  been, 
and  constantly  are  still  destroyed,  and  provinces  ravaged. 
The  last  great  earthquake,  which  took  place  at  Yedo  in 
1855,  was  one  of  the  most  horrible  ever  experienced  ;  the 
town  was  almost  completely  destroyed  and  burned. 
Japanese  houses  are  of  wood,  and  the  earthquake 
bringing  in  its  train  fire,  the  latter  finishes  up  what  the 
former  has  already  commenced. 

In  October,  1891,  there  was  another  earthquake,  which 
turned  out  a  terrible  catastrophe,  desolating  the  country 
between  Nagoya  and  Kyoto,  and  numbering  about  30,000 
victims. 

VI 

Japan  is  irrigated  by  a  fairly  large  number  of  water- 
courses; but  owing  to  the  slight  extent  of  the  valleys, 
which  are  necessarily  compressed  owing  to  the  extreme 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE  29 

length  and  narrow  width  of  the  country,  the  rivers  have 
a  very  insignificant  course,  and  except  in  one  part, 
towards  their  mouth,  are  invariably  unnavigable.  I 
shall,  however,  give  particulars  of  some  of  them. 

The  Fujikawa  is  formed  of  three  rivers,  which  rise 
in  the  province  of  Kai.  It  flows  in  a  southerly  direc- 
tion, crosses  the  province  of  Suruga,  and  passes  at  the 
foot  of  Mount  Fuji  before  falling  into  the  sea.  The 
Fujikawa  is,  correctly  speaking,  a  torrent  which  during 
the  great  summer  rains  is  too  frequently  the  enemy  of 
the  cultivator  and  the  destroyer  of  the  crops. 

The  Oi-gawa  rises  in  the  border  of  the  provinces  of 
Shinano  and  Kai,  and  flows  towards  the  south,  forming 
the  boundary  between  the  provinces  of  Suruga  and 
Tôtômi. 

The  Tenriu-gawa,  which  is  rather  more  important  than 
the  above  (60  ri  =  150  miles  in  length),*  takes  its  origin 
in  Lake  Suwa.  This  river  debouches  in  the  province 
of  Shinano  ;  it  crosses  the  province  of  Tôtômi  in  flowing 
southwards. 

The  Shinano-gawa  has  its  source  in  the  province  of  the 
same  name,  under  the  name  of  Chikuma-gawa,  and 
flows  north-west  and  then  north,  traversing  the  province 
of  Echigo,  where  it  takes  the  name  of  Shinano-gawa.  It 
flows  into  the  sea  at  Niigata.  The  length  of  its  course  is 
about  100  ri.  It  is  only  in  part  navigable,  having  rapids, 
which  render  its  use  as  a  means  of  transport  very  little  to 
be  depended  upon. 

The  Kiso-gawa  has  its  source  in  the  district  of  Chikuma, 
province  of  Shinano,  and  flows  first  south-west,  then 
south.      It   enters   the  province   of    Mino,   flows    in   a 

*  The  ri  represents  nearly  2J  miles.  (See  table  of  length  measures  at 
end  of  the  volume.) 


30  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

westerly  direction,  and  finally  again  takes  a  southerly 
direction  ;  it  separates  into  numerous  branches,  which  flow 
into  the  sea,  crossing  the  provinces  of  Owari  and  Isé. 

The  Abukuna-gawa  starts  in  the  district  of  Shirakawa, 
province  of  Iwaki,  then,  directing  itself  northwards,  enters 
finally  the  province  of  Iwashiro,  when  it  flows  eastwards. 
Changing  its  course  it  re-enters  the  province  of  Iwaki, 
flows  north  as  far  as  the  boundary  of  the  province  of 
Eikuzen,  then  turns  towards  the  east  to  gain  the  sea. 

The  Kitakami-gawa  makes  its  start  in  the  district  of 
Iwati,  in  the  province  of  Eikuchu  ;  it  flows  south,  travers- 
ing the  province  of  Eikuzen,  and  empties  itself  into  the 
sea  at  the  port  of  Ishinomaki. 

The  Mogami-gawa  has  its  source  in  the  Dainichi  moun- 
tain, in  the  district  of  Oitama,  province  of  Uzen  ;  it 
traverses  the  two  districts  of  Murayama  and  Mogami, 
taking  a  northerly  direction,  after  which  the  direction  is 
westward  to  the  borders  of  the  province  of  Ugo,  emptying 
into  the  sea  at  Sakata. 

The  Tone-gawa  (190  ri,*  see  table),  the  most  important 
river  of  Japan,  flows  from  Nakanodake  past  Numata, 
then  makes  a  westward  bend  at  the  mountain  chain  of 
the  Akagis  so  as  to  arrive  at  the  large  town  of  Mayebashi 
(50,000  inhabitants).  Below  this  latter  the  river  flows 
directly  east  till  it  comes  to  the  rising  ground  of  Koga 
(town  with  a  population  of  about  10,000),  when  it  goes 
northwards,  and  finally  east.  It  flows  into  the  Pacific 
Ocean  north  of  Cape  Inubomisaki.  Although  it  passes 
for  a  great  river  in  Japan,  the  Tone-gawa  has  none  of  the 
characteristics  of  the  rivers  of  the  European  continent  ; 
it  is  not  equal  even  to  the  Seine,  and  though  some 
flat-bottomed    junks    and   little   steamers  with   a    small 

*  1  ri  =  rather  less  than  2J  miles. 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE  31 

draught  of  water  can  navigate  it  as  far  as  Numata,  its 
importance  as  a  commercial  waterway  cannot  be  rated 
highly.  Moreover,  there  is  no  good  harbour  at  its  mouth, 
and  outside  the  barrage,  constantly  renewed,  the  winds 
beat  against  the  shore,  so  inclement  for  ships.  The 
Tone-gawa  becomes  fork-shaped  at  Sekiyado,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Shimosa,  and  forms  the  branch  called  Yedo-gawa, 
which  falls  into  the  bay  of  Yedo  not  far  from  Tokyo. 

The  Sumida-gawa  (75  ri),  more  familiar  under  the  name 
of  Arakawa,  at  its  source  in  the  mainland  of  Kokushidake 
and  also  in  its  entire  upper  course,  falls  into  the  sea  at 
Tokyo,  after  having  traversed  a  large  part  of  the  town. 
Like  all  Japanese  rivers,  it  is  only  navigable  near  its  mouth. 

The  Baniu-gawa,  which  is  only  18  ri  long,  is  a  torrent 
issuing  from  the  lake  of  Yamanaka,  on  the  north-east 
slopes  of  the  Fujiyama.  Like  the  Fujikawa,  it  often 
causes  disasters  in  summer. 

The  Yodogawa  rises  in  Lake  Biwa,  in  the  province  of 
Omi,  takes  a  southward  direction,  enters  the  province  of 
Yamashiro,  and  then  retakes  a  westerly  course.  The 
river  in  the  beginning  bears  the  name  of  Ujigawa,  passes 
Yodo,  from  whence  it  takes  its  name,  and  flows  in  a 
south-westerly  course,  separating  the  two  provinces  of 
Kawachi  and  Setsu.  It  debouches  into  the  sea,  passing 
by  Osaka,  and  is  only  20  ri  long. 

The  Go-gawa  is  formed  by  two  rivers,  the  first  of  which, 
named  Mioshi-gawa,  originates  in  the  province  of  Bingo, 
whilst  the  second,  named  Yoshida-gawa,  rises  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Aki.  Formed  thus  by  the  reunion  of  the  two 
rivers,  it  flows  in  a  north-westerly  direction,  and  goes 
into  the  province  of  Iwami.  At  its  entrance  into  this 
province,  irrigating  the  two  districts  of  Ochi  and  Naka,  it 
bears  the  name  of  Go-gawa,  at  the  same  time  making  a 


32  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

slight  detour,  then  it  reassumes  its  north-westerly  direction 
to  debouch  into  the  sea.    The  length  of  its  course  is  80  ri. 

The  Yoshi-gawa  rises  in  the  district  of  Tosa,  in  the 
province  of  that  name,  flows  first  eastwards,  then  bends 
north,  and,  crossing  the  province  of  Awa,  receives  the 
lyogawa  river,  flowing  into  the  sea  by  numerous  mouths. 

The  Chikugo,  or  Chitose-gawa,  is  formed  by  the  union 
of  two  water-courses,  one  of  which  comes  from  the  province 
of  Higo  and  the  other  from  the  province  of  Bungo.  This 
river  first  flows  in  a  north-westerly  direction  to  the  borders 
of  the  provinces  of  Chikuzen  and  Chikugo,  after  which  it 
traverses  this  latter  province,  separating  it  from  Hizen. 

A  mountainous  and  volcanic  country,  Japan  contains  a 
large  number  of  lakes  both  in  north  and  south.  I  shall 
limit  myself  here  to  indicating  the  three  principal  ones. 
First,  Lake  Biwa,  not  far  from  Kyoto,  in  the  province 
of  Omi  ;  it  measures  about  36  miles  in  length  by  12 
miles  and  owes  its  name  to  its  configuration,  which 
resembles  the  Japanese  guitar  (Biwa)  ;  steamships  offer 
their  services  in  every  direction,  and  make  excellent  pro- 
vision for  visiting  the  places  of  note  comfortably. 

The  little  lake  of  Hakone,  which  only  measures 
12|  miles  round,  is  very  well  known  and  greatly 
frequented,  owing  to  its  situation  upon  one  of  the  most 
delightful  places  in  Japan. 

Lake  Chuzenji,  in  the  province  of  Shimotzuke,  is 
situated  upon  the  summit  of  the  Nikko  mountains.  It 
is  20  miles  round,  and  it  is  upon  its  shores  that  the 
Europeans  residing  at  Tokyo  and  Yokohama  take  refuge 
during  the  heat  of  summer.  It  is  owing  to  the  railway, 
which  joins  Tokyo  to  Nikko,  that  Chuzenji  has  become 
the  residence  of  the  diplomatic  corps  during  the  months 
of  July,  August,  and  September. 


HAIRY    AIXUS. 


To  face  p.  33- 


CHAPTEE  II 


The  aborigines  and  conquerors — II.  Chinese  influx  ;  Mongol  and  Ainu 
peoples — III.  The  Japanese  type  at  the  present  day — IV.  Before  and 
after  the  Revolution  of  1868  ;  aristocracy  and  people — V.  Japanese 
Constitution;  the  Government — VI.  Justice,  the  tribunals — VII. 
System  of  finance,  budget — VIII.  Electoral  law — IX.  The  Emperor 
and  patriotism — X.  The  nation  ;  its  dissimulation  and  its  smile  ; 
character  of  the  Japanese — XI.  Religion  and  superstition — XII. 
Foreigners  in  Japan. 


By  whom  was  Japan  peopled  at  the  dawn  of  history  ? 
This  is  a  problem  which  has  not  yet  been  solved,  and 
will  not  ever  be  in  my  own  opinion.  It  is  extremely 
probable  that  prior  to  the  arrival  of  the  conquerors  (the 
present-day  Japanese)  the  islands  in  the  extreme  west 
were  peopled  in  the  north  by  Ainus,  Goldes,  and  Giliaks, 
Siberian  races,  of  whom  traces  are  still  found  at  Yezo  and 
SaghaHen,  and  in  the  province  of  Amur  under  control  of 
Eussia.  The  south  appears  to  have  been  the  home  of 
Negritoes  and  Canaque  tribes,  resembling  those  still 
found  existing  in  the  Philippines,  the  Bonin  Islands, 
Nouméa,  and  Tahiti.  But  from  660  B.c.,  the  date 
assigned  to  the  first  Japanese  emperor,  these  different 
races  have  been  replaced  by  numerous  Malay  peoples. 
When    the  warrior    chief    known    by  the    name    of 

3  33 


34  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

Iwarehiko  landed  with  his  band  on  the  island  of  Kyushu, 
he  destroyed  or  reduced  into  slavery  the  natives,  and 
pushing  on  his  conquest  in  a  northerly  direction,  reached 
Honshu  (Isle  of  Nippon).  Proclaimed  emperor  in  660 
under  the  name  of  Jinmu  Tenno,  he  left  to  his  sucessors 
the  task  of  continuing  the  occupation  of  the  land,  a  task 
they  thoroughly  carried  out. 

The  Malay  element,  then,  is   incontestably  the   con- 
quering and  dominating  one  of  Japan. 


II 


Nevertheless,  it  is  none  the  less  correct  to  say  that 
there  has  been  a  Chinese  influx,  Korea  being  the  inter- 
mediary. Writing,  Letters,  and  the  Arts  and  Sciences 
of  China  were  brought  to  Japan  by  the  natives  of 
the  Celestial  Empire,  and  at  the  different  re-conquests 
the  Emperors  of  Japan  brought  into  the  country  men 
and  women  to  teach  the  arts  of  metal-working  and 
silk-weaving. 

There  was  thus  a  Mongol  intermixture,  but  there  is  no 
doubt  that  it  had  no  great  influence  ;  and  if  to-day  there 
are  still  found  Japanese  of  a  purely  Mongol  type,  the 
bulk  of  the  people  present  a  markedly  Malaysian  type. 
The  native  Ainu  type  is  to  be  met  also,  but  more  rarely, 
and  I  have  come  across,  though  not  often,  certain 
Japanese  with  abundant  hair  and  thick  black  beards, 
who,  dressed  in  the  European  style,  might  have  passed 
unchallenged  as  South  Americans.  On  the  other 
hand  one  often  discovers,  notably  in  the  south,  the 
Negrito  type — woolly  hair,  dark  complexion,  and  thick 
lips. 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  35 

III 

Owing  to  its  situation  as  a  group  of  islands  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  world,  having  no  outward  relations 
except  with  China  through  the  intermediary  of  Korea, 
(and  that,  moreover,  only  tardily),  with  all  its  ports 
closed  to  foreigners  down  to  1617,  when  the  death  of 
leyasu  occurred,  the  country  has  existed  in  an  isolation 
that  is  complete.  This  has  facilitated  an  intermingling 
and  amalgamation  of  all  the  races  which  have  spread 
themselves  over  the  land  of  Nippon,  and  to-day  the 
Japanese  type  is  a  truly  unique  one  ;  it  is  characterised 
generally  by  small  stature,  large  body,  with  short  legs, 
and  somewhat  ugly,  though  there  are  feminine  types 
which  form  the  exception  ;  but,  taken  as  a  whole,  one 
may  say  that  the  prettiness  of  the  Japanese  women  is 
due  rather  to  their  dress  than  to  natural  physical  causes. 


IV 


Prior  to  the  revolution  of  1868,  which  re-established 
upon  the  throne  the  descendant  of  Jinmu  Tenno  and 
broke  up  the  power  of  the  Shogun,  or  Lieutenant- 
General,  for  many  centuries  the  true  emperor,  Japan 
existed  in  a  state  of  feudalism,  the  provinces  under  the 
control  of  the  feudal  princes  or  Daimyôs,  who  were  in 
their  turn  under  the  authority  of  the  Shogun.  The 
Shogun  appropriated  for  his  own  occupation  Yedo  (the 
Tokyo  of  to-day)  and  the  surrounding  provinces,  which 
together  constituted  the  Kouan  to. 

To-day  this  feudalism  is  destroyed,  and  the  Mikado 
reigns  over  a  united  and  centralised  country.  Mutsu- 
hito,   hundred   and   twenty-first  Emperor  of    Japan,   is 


36  THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 

looked  upon  as  the  direct  heir  in  an  uninterrupted  Hne 
from  Jinmu  Tenno  ;  it  is  unnecessary  to  say  that  this  is 
a  myth.  For  a  very  long  period  the  Emperors  of  Japan, 
according  to  the  most  authentic  accounts,  have  not  had 
in  their  veins  a  drop  of  the  blood  of  Jinmu,  because  with 
the  child  emperors  who  succeeded  one  another  without 
interruption  under  theFujiwara,  the  Taira,  and  the  Mina- 
moto  *  (about  800  to  1200  a.d.),  and  with  the  system  of 
adoptions  which  has  always  flourished  in  all  times  in  the 
Imperial  family  when  there  has  been  no  male  heir,  it  is 
quite  certain  that  for  a  long  period  the  direct  line  has 
been  interrupted.  But  the  Japanese  have  preserved  the 
fiction,  and  their  intense  patriotism  has  always  disposed 
them  to  the  belief  that  their  Imperial  dynasty  descends 
from  the  divine  Amaterasu,  goddess  of  the  sun  (Amaterasu 
0  mi  Kami). 

The  ancient  feudal  lords,  known  under  the  name  of 
Daimyos,  have  all  made  their  submission  to  the  Emperor, 
and  form  one  part  of  the  Japanese  aristocracy  to-day  ;  I 
say  one  part,  because  the  actual  aristocracy  outside  the 
old  families  counts  in  its  ranks  ordinary  plebeians  who 
have  been  ennobled. 

The  aristocracy,  as  in  England,  is  attainable  by  con- 
ferment. The  Emperor  confers  the  title  of  duke,  mar- 
quis, count,  or  viscount  or  baron,  on  those  of  his  subjects 
whom  he  considers  to  have  well  served  him,  whatever 
may  be  the  humbleness  of  their  origin. 

Below  the  nobles  come  the  Shizoku,  ancient  soldiers 
and  retainers  of  the  Daimyos  and  the  Shogun.  The  title 
alone  distinguishes  them  from  the  Heimin,  or  people  who 
are  next  in  rank,  there  being  no  single  point  of  difference 
perceptible  between  them  to-day. 

*  Families  of  the  Shogun,  or  Lieutenant-General. 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  37 

Great  nobles  or  Kwazoku,  little  nobles  or  Shizoku, 
people  or  Heimin,  they  are  all  on  an  equality  before  the 
Emperor  and  before  the  law. 

The  Japanese  are  a  people  essentially  easy  to  govern. 
Habituated  under  the  old  régime  to  an  exceptional  disci- 
pline, they  have  conserved  their  love  of  a  hierarchy,  of 
authority,  and  reverence  for  superiors.  A  man  asking 
his  way  in  the  street  from  a  policeman,  approaches  him 
with  a  respectful  timidity,  owing  to  his  being  the  repre- 
sentative of  authority. 

V 

Accustomed  to  obey  the  orders  of  the  Emperor  and  his 
Ministers,  the  Japanese  people  knew  nothing  of  the 
nature  of  a  Constitution.  With  a  view,  therefore,  of 
modernising  the  machinery  of  government,  the  Mikado, 
on  the  advice  of  his  Ministers,  granted  a  Constitution  to 
the  people  on  February  11,  1889,  consisting  of  an  Upper 
and  Lower  House.  This  Constitution  is  modelled  upon 
that  of  the  German  Empire,  the  Ministers  being  respon- 
sible only  to  the  Emperor,  and  being  able  consequently 
to  ignore  the  Imperial  Diet  when  they  deem  it  desirable. 

The  principal  articles  of  the  Japanese  Constitution  can 
be  summarised  thus  : — 

1.  The  Emperor  exercises  legislative  power  in  concert 
with  the  Imperial  Diet;  he  sanctions  laws  and  orders 
their  promulgation.  He  convokes  the  two  Houses,  closes, 
prorogues,  and  dissolves  them. 

2.  When  the  Imperial  Diet  is  not  sitting  imperial 
ordinances  have  the  force  of  law.  It  is  laid  down  that 
the  ordinances  must  be  submitted  to  the  Imperial  Diet 
at  the  following  session,  which  can  revoke  them  if  not 


38  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

satisfied  with  them  ;  but  who  would  dare  to  announce  in 
the  Imperial  Diet  opposition  to  an  Imperial  ordinance  ? 

3.  The  Emperor  determines  the  organisation  of  the 
different  administrations,  and  fixes  the  salaries  of  the 
civil  functionaries  and  the  officers. 

4.  The  Emperor  has  the  supreme  command  of  the 
army  and  navy;  he  declares  war,  makes  peace,  and 
concludes  treaties. 

5.  He  confers  titles  of  nobility  and  honours  and 
decorations  ;  he  has  the  right  to  grant  pardon  and 
amnesty. 

6.  In  the  event  of  being  a  minor  a  regent  is  appointed 
who  fulfils  all  the  duties  of  the  Emperor  in  his  name. 

7.  The  Imperial  Diet  comprises  two  Houses — the  House 
of  Peers  and  the  House  of  Representatives.  The  House 
of  Peers  is  constituted  by  the  members  of  the  Imperial 
family,  the  nobility,  and  those  whom  the  Emperor 
judges  worthy  of  being  nominated  there.  The  House 
of  Representatives  is  formed  of  members  elected  by  the 
nation  in  conformity  with  the  electoral  law.  The  two 
Houses  vote  on  legislation  submitted  to  them  by  the 
Government,  and  they  can  initiate  legislation.  A  Bill 
that  is  rejected  by  one  or  other  of  the  two  Houses 
cannot  be  brought  forward  again  during  the  same  session. 

8.  The  Imperial  Diet  is  convoked  every  year  for  three 
months  ;  in  case  of  necessity  the  Emperor  can  prolong 
the  Session.  In  the  event  of  urgent  circumstances  the 
Emperor  can  convoke  the  Imperial  Diet.  The  two 
Houses  sit  at  the  same  time,  and  if  the  Lower  Chamber 
is  dissolved  the  Upper  Chamber  is  prorogued  i^so/ac^o. 

9.  When  the  dissolution  is  pronounced  new  elections 
take  place,  and  the  new  Chamber  is  convoked  within  five 
months. 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  39 

10.  No  vote  can  be  taken  unless  a  third  at  least  of  the 
members  are  present.  Votes  must  be  adopted  by  an 
absolute  majority,  the  President  having  a  casting  vote 
in  the  event  of  the  votes  being  equal. 

11.  The  proceedings  are  open  to  the  public,  but  the 
Government  and  the  Chambers  can  order  the  doors  to 
be  closed.  The  Chambers  can  present  petitions  to  the 
Emperor,  and  receive  them  from  the  people. 

12.  The  members  are  inviolable,  and  cannot  be  arrested 
without  the  consent  of  the  Chambers,  except  in  cases  of 
flagrante  delicto,  or  of  offences  connected  with  a  state 
of  internal  commotion,  or  a  foreign  war.  Ministers 
have  the  right  to  sit  in  both  Houses.  Ministers  of  State 
and  the  Privy  Council  are  superior  to  the  two  Houses, 
and  act  with  them.  Ministers  of  State  are  responsible 
to  the  Emperor,  and  must  countersign  all  laws,  ordi- 
nances, and  Imperial  prescriptions  of  every  kind.  The 
Privy  Council  deliberate  upon  important  matters  of 
State  when  they  have  been  consulted  by  the  Emperor. 
Their  deliberations  are  always  in  secret,  and  never  pub- 
lished. 

Here  is  the  composition  of  the  Government,  starting 
from  its  head,  the  Emperor  : — 

Nai  Kaku  (Cabinet). 

Minister  of  the  Imperial  Palace  (Ku  Nai  sho). 

Minister  of  the  Interior  (Nai  mu  sho). 

Minister  of  Justice  (Shi  ho  sho). 

Finance  Minister  (0  Kura  sho). 

Minister  of  Agriculture  and  Commerce  (No  sho  mu  sho). 

War  Minister  (Eiku  gun  sho). 

Minister  for  the  Navy  (Kai  gun  sho) . 

Minister  for  Post  Office  (Tei  shin  sho) . 


40  THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

Minister  for  Public  Education  (Mom  bu  sho). 

Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs  (Gai  mu  shô). 

Privy  Council  (Su  mitsu  in). 

House  of  Peers  (Ka  zoku  gi  in). 

House  of  Eepresentatives  (Koku  kai  gi  in). 

As  in  Europe,  the  different  administrations  are  divided 
into  departments,  under  departments,  offices,  &c.,  which 
it  is  not  necessary  to  enumerate  here.  There  formerly 
existed  a  Minister  for  Public  Works,  Ko  bu  shô,  but  he 
has  been  dispensed  with,  and  the  various  offices  that  he 
administered  have  been  divided  between  the  Minister  of 
Agriculture  and  Commerce  and  the  Post  Office  Minister. 

VI 

There  was  formerly  in  Japan,  as  is  usual  in 
Eastern  countries,  no  distinction  between  administrative 
power  and  judicial  power.  "When,  however,  Japan  came 
into  line  with  "Western  countries  it  laid  down  regulations 
for  the  establishment  of  tribunals  in  which  [the  working 
of  the  judicatory  system  could  be  carried  out. 

1.  Judgments  are  delivered  by  the  courts  of  justice 
established  in  conformity  with  the  law. 

2.  The  judges  are  selected  from  those  subjects  who 
possess  qualifications  according  to  law.  No  judge  can  be 
removed  from  his  position  unless  by  way  of  criminal 
sentence  or  disciplinary  punishment. 

3.  Trials  in  court  are  public,  but  if  the  judge  considers 
that  the  publicity  of  the  trial  may  be  prejudicial  to  peace, 
order,  or  public  morality,  the  court  may  order  the  doors 
to  be  closed  against  the  public. 

All  matters  that  do  not  come  into  the  province  of 
ordinary  courts  shall  be  decided  by  special  courts  (such  as 


< 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  41 

the  crimes  and  offences  of  soldiers  and  sailors).  And  all 
complaints  against  the  illegal  measures,  or  the  abuses 
of  executive  authorities,  must  be  dealt  with  by  a  special 
court  of  administrative  litigation. 

VII 

The  laws  relating  to  finance  have  been  thus  re- 
modelled : — 

1.  Taxation  is  fixed  by  law.  National  loans  and  all 
liabilities  contracted  in  the  name  of  the  National  Treasury 
have  to  receive  the  consent  of  Parliament. 

2.  The  revenue  and  expenditure  of  the  State  require 
the  approbation  of  the  Imperial  Diet  by  means  of  an 
annual  Budget  ;  all  expenditure  incurred  beyond  that 
covered  by  the  Budget,  when  this  has  been  passed,  has 
to  receive  the  sanction  of  the  Imperial  Diet. 

3.  The  Budget  is  first  submitted  to  the  House  of 
Eepresentatives. 

4.  The  expenses  of  the  Emperor  and  the  Imperial 
Household  are  all  defrayed  out  of  the  National  Treasury, 
but  are  not  submitted  to  the  approbation  of  the 
Diet,  except  when  an  increase  is  demanded.  Generally 
speaking,  the  expenditure  of  the  Emperor  and  the 
Imperial  Household  cannot  be  reduced  by  the  Diet 
without  the  consent  of  the  Government. 

In  case  of  urgency  the  Government  can  pass  any 
financial  measures  it  considers  advisable  through  the 
agency  of  Imperial  ordinances.  When  the  Budget  has 
not  been  voted  the  Government  can  carry  out  the  Budget 
of  the  preceding  year.  All  the  financial  accounts  of 
the  national  revenue  and  expenditure  are  verified  by 
the  Audit  Court. 


42  THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

VIII 

The  provisions  of  the  Electoral  Law  are  as  follows  : 
To  be  an  elector  one  must  be  a  Japanese,  twenty-five 
years  of  age,  must  have  been  resident  for  one  year, 
and  pay  15  yen*  at  least  in  direct  taxation. 

Electors  are  not  very  numerous  ;  many  of  them,  not 
yet  knowing  what  an  election  is,  and  caring  even  less, 
abstain  from  voting. 

Ever  since  the  first  election  there  have  been  men  very 
much  au  fait  with  electoral  opportunities  who  have 
sold  their  votes  for  the  highest  offer,  which  has  been 
as  much  as  25  yen. 


IX 

In  spite  of  this  shadow  of  Parliamentarism,  it  is  clear 
that  the  political  condition  of  Japan  resembles  in  no 
particular  what  we  call  Constitutional  Government. 

The  State  is  the  Emperor,  and  his  person  is  sacred  ;  his 
decisions  are  looked  upon  as  actually  coming  from 
Heaven,  whose  offspring  he  is  supposed  to  be.  Son  of 
Heaven,  Ten  shi  sama,  that  is  the  designation  given 
him  by  loyal  subjects  of  Nippon. 

Nevertheless,  with  all  this,  some  rents  are  unques- 
tionably making  their  appearance  in  this  "/oi  de  char- 
bonnier "  ;  and  the  Emperor  passing  along  the  streets 
of  Tokyo  is  not  infrequently  regarded  with  indifference  : 
he  is  respected,  but  there  is  no  longer  the  old  adoration. 
It  has  even  occurred  to  me  to  hear  Japanese  at  a  review, 
awaiting  the  arrival  of  the  Emperor,  become  impatient 
and  express  themselves  with  scant  courtesy  with  regard 

*  The  yen  is  worth  2  fr.  55  (about  two  shillings). 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  43 

to  the  "  Emperor  who  might  have  been  more  punctual." 
There  is,  however,  one  thing  which  will  preserve  intact 
for  a  long  time  yet  the  love  of  the  people  for  the 
Emperor.  This  is  the  intense,  indeed  barbaric,  patriotism 
animating  every  Japanese.  The  Emperor  is  one  with 
the  land,  and  the  Japanese  land  is  sacrosanct.  At 
the  elementary  schools  the  children  of  five  years  old 
are  taught  that  there  exists  no  more  beautiful  country 
than  Japan,  that  it  is  the  land  of  the  gods  of  whom 
the  Emperor  is  the  son,  and  that  one  must  die  for 
country  and  Emperor.  These  principles  inculcated  in 
a  race  that  is  combative,  excessively  proud  and 
courageous,  have  produced  a  nation  essentially  warlike 
and  brave.* 

X 

Below  the  Emperor,  one  can  justly  say  that  there  is  but 
one  people,  any  class  distinction  being  rather  in  the  law 

*  A  song  found  in  the  elementary  reading-books  is  very  characteristic  : — 
"  The  sabres  of  the  army  are  like  frost  ; 
Cannon-balls  are  like  hail  ; 
In  the  struggle  upon  earth 
Mountains  are  shaken,  rivers  tremble  ; 
The  warriors  of  Japan  are  disciplined  and  loyal. 
Break  not  the  ranks  ;  remove  mountains  and  rivers  ; 
Advance,  fix  your  eyes  upon  the  enemy. 
The  artillery  hurtles  through  the  air. 
The  torpedo  quivers  in  the  sea. 
In  the  naval  combat  the  wind  rises,  the  sea  roars  ; 
The  warriors  are  disciplined  and  loyal  ; 
Draw  up  in  line  the  fleet  ;  conquer  the  white  floods  ; 
Advance,  fix  your  eyes  on  the  enemies'  ships." 

Another  example  is  seen  in  "  Song  of  Children  saying  Farewell  to 
their  Father." 

"  On  the  departure  of  the  father  for  the  war,  the  elder  brother  brings 
his  helmet  and  the  younger  brother  his  boots  ;  both  are  calmer  than 
usual.  They  say  to  their  father,  '  Depart,  and  bring  us  home  as  gifts  the 
heads  of  enemies.'    The  father  makes  a  sign  of  assent  with  his  head." 


44  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

than  in  manners  ;  the  sovereign  apart,  the  Japanese  is 
somewhat  democratic,  as  are  the  Chinese  and  the  Oriental 
generally  ;  there  does  not  exist  a  haughty  aristocracy  as 
in  England,  or  autocratic  and  stiff  as  in  Germany.  As 
a  consequence,  from  the  social  standpoint  there  is  greater 
equality  in  Japan  than  almost  anywhere. 

The  people — by  this  I  mean  the  peasant  and  the  work- 
man— are  infinitely  more  polite  and  better  educated  than 
in  any  country  of  Europe. 

One  is  pleasantly  surprised  in  travelling  through  the 
country  of  Japan  to  find  the  people  extremely  courteous, 
very  hospitable,  and  generally  extremely  clean  ;  in  regard 
to  this  latter,  the  comparison  with  some  of  our  provinces 
is  not  always  to  our  advantage.  It  must  not,  however, 
be  assumed  that  because  they  are  polite  and  hospitable 
they  like  Europeans.  They  do  not  like  us — indeed, 
they  detest  us — but  they  do  not  let  this  be  apparent. 
"What  more  can  we  demand?  In  this  is  to  be  found 
one  of  the  great  elements  of  strength  of  the  Japanese 
character  :  its  dissimulation.  Habituated  from  tenderest 
infancy  to  allow  neither  grief  nor  joy  to  be  visible  on  his 
face,  the  Japanese  preserves  an  impenetrable  physiog- 
nomy, and  it  is  impossible  to  guess  his  thoughts.  All  his 
ideas  are  concealed  behind  an  immutable  smile,  which  is 
to  be  discerned  everywhere  and  in  all  circumstances. 

It  is  instructive  to  reproduce  here  without  approval  or 
commentary  a  passage  which  appeared  in  a  Japanese 
newspaper  upon  the  future  of  Tonkin,  under  the 
signature  of  "  Sujin  "  : — 

*'  Having  only  recently  emerged  from  feudalism,  the 
Japanese  still  submits  to  the  authority  of  opinion,  which 
is  defied  by  no  one.     From  this  arises  the  collective  will, 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  45 

whose  power  has  produced  an  incredible  condition — a 
national  dissimulation — following  upon  a  single  word  of 
order  issued  to  the  entire  nation.  The  humanity  which 
has  been  shown  to  prisoners  is  the  attitude  imposed  by 
the  élite  of  the  nation  under  the  eye  of  Western 
observers.  In  the  same  way  the  politeness  towards 
strangers  skilfully  veils  the  hatred  they  inspire. 

"  The  heroic  spirit  of  old  Japan,  even  without  the  new 
complexity  of  dissimulation,  is  very  difficult  to  explain. 
It  involves  the  disunion  of  ideas  that  appear  to  us  in- 
separable, and  vice  versa.  Thus,  contempt  of  death, 
chivalrous  sacrifice,  and  loyalty  are  characteristic  virtues 
of  the  ^Samurai  ;  yet  a  man  entitled  to  be  regarded  as 
most  brave  and  loyal  will  not  hesitate  to  take  advantage 
by  treacherous  means  and  strike  from  behind  a  disarmed 
adversary  whom  he  considers  it  is  his  duty  to  hate.  A 
patriot  kills  himself  that  he  may  sign  his  convictions 
with  his  blood,  but  he  will  assassinate  a  Minister  whose 
political  activity  in  his  judgment  is  bad.  Such  examples 
have  abounded  since  1869. 

"FuTUEE  OF  Tonkin,  May  9, 1909." 

Does  all  this  harmonise  with  the  introduction  of 
modern  ideas  ?  In  this  connection  it  is  interesting  to 
learn  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Kawakami  Kiyoshi,  one  of  the 
leading  sociologists  of  present-day  Japan  : — 

"  The  moral  principles,  especially  the  spirit  of  chivalry, 
which  furnishes  the  Japanese  nation  with  rules  of 
conduct  for  their  daily  life,  have  been  destroyed  by  the 
recent  revolutions,  political  and  industrial.  Envy, 
hatred,  grief,  and  restrained  rage  on  the  part  of  the 
poor,  extravagant  vanity,  luxury,  and  dissipation  amongst 
the  rich — these    are   the   symptoms   of  the  great  social 


46  THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 

conflict   which  will  certainly  take  place  in  Japan  at  no 
distant  future." 

XI 

With  respect  to  religion,  the  Japanese  has  none  or 
very  little  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  he  is  very  super- 
stitious. Formerly  the  cultured  people  followed  the 
ethics  of  Confucius,  and  the  people  the  precepts  of 
Buddha,  both  at  the  same  time  acknowledging  and 
following  Shintoism,  or  the  religion  of  Shinto  gods, 
ancestors  of  the  Mikado. 

Originally,  at  the  dawn  of  the  Empire,  after  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  monarchy  by  Jinmu,  Shintoism  was  alone 
acknowledged  ;  it  was  then,  and  is  still  to-day,  the  worship 
of  the  Imperial  ancestors,  and  notably  of  the  goddess  of 
the  sun,  Amaterasu  o  mi  Kami. 

To  the  numberless  throng  of  gods  or  Kami,  which  I  do 
not  propose  enumerating  here,  the  Emperors  added  the 
names  of  their  predecessors,  whom  they  elevated  to  the 
rank  of  Kami,  and  it  is  in  this  way  that  Shintoism  has 
become  the  cult  of  the  Imperial  ancestors. 

Side  by  side  with  this  there  have  gradually  developed 
'^  popular  superstitions.  There  is  the  superstition  of  the 
fox,  to  whom  temples  are  dedicated,  and  whom  the  people 
appease  by  prayer  and  sacrifice  ;  and  there  is  many 
another  in  which  the  gods  of  wind,  rain,  and  thunder 
figure. 

After  Shintoism  came  Buddhism,  which  has  supplanted 
the  former  with  the  people,  though  Shintoism  has  re- 
mained the  religion  of  the  Emperor. 

The  people  hold  it  in  respect,  and  when  in  need  go  to 
the  Shintoist  temple  and  offer  up  prayers  ;  but  they  have 


ÏHK    BLUUHIST    IMAl'.K    AT    KAMAKL'KA. 


To  face  p.  47. 


THE   JAPANESE    EMPIRE  47 

adopted  Buddhism  because  it  is  more  suited  to  their 
intelligence  and  more  understandable  in  its  dogmas  and 
ceremonies.  Buddhism  was  introduced  into  Japan  by 
Korea  in  the  reign  of  Ken  Mei  tennô,  563  a.d.  There 
were  considerable  difficulties  in  its  installation,  but,  aided 
by  the  Imperial  protection,  it  soon  took  root,  and  Japan 
very  rapidly  became  Buddhist.  It  is  the  religion  which 
at  the  present  time  is  the  most  widely  diffused. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  Japanese  have  two  religions — 
the  cult  of  the  Kami,  the  old  national  religion,  and  the 
worship  of  Buddha,  imported  from  India  by  China  and 
Korea.  One  constantly  sees  a  Japanese  on  religious 
festival  days  offer  up  prayers  in  the  two  temples,  one 
after  the  other. 

In  Japan  Buddhism  is  divided  into  several  sects,  all  of 
which  have  their  principal  temple  at  Kyoto.  At  the 
period  of  Ota  Nobunaga  (1553)  Kyoto  was  a  regular 
stronghold  of  the  Buddhist  priests,  who  were  con- 
stantly rebelling  against  authority.  They  were  often 
punished,  and  Nobunaga  carried  out  a  terrible  massacre 
there. 

Eeligion  to-day  counts  for  very  little  in  Japan,  and  it 
is  superstition  alone  that  has  taken  profound  root  there. 
The  higher  classes,  more  or  less  imbued  with  European 
ideas,  profess  the  most  sovereign  contempt  for  everything 
rehgious,  and  maintain  nothing  beyond  the  custom  of 
observing  Shintoist  rites  on  festival  days.  On  the  other 
hand,  I  have  heard  from  a  trustworthy  source,  and  I 
have  no  difficulty  in  believing  the  report,  that  the 
great  personages  of  the  State  consult  the  fates  every 
morning  !  The  State  outside  the  cult  of  Shinto  in  no 
way  concerns  itself  with  the  religion  of  its  subjects.  It 
is   more   tolerant   in   this   respect   than   many  Western 


48  THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

countries.  Catholicism,  Protestantism,  the  Greek  Ortho- 
dox Church  can  all  flourish  there  in  perfect  security  pro- 
vided that  they  do  nothing  against  the  laws  of  the 
Empire,  and  as  the  Empire  has  issued  no  special  laws 
against  them,  it  is  not  a  difficult  matter  for  them  to  keep 
the  general  laws.  The  ancient  laws  against  the  Christians 
have  been  entirely  repealed. 

From  the  political  standpoint  the  clergy  have  no  sort 
of  influence  upon  Japan.  Priests  of  all  sorts  and  monks 
of  all  categories  live  in  peace,  persecuting  no  one  and 
being  persecuted  by  no  one. 

The  mendicant  monks  still  go  up  and  down  the  streets 
in  the  mornings  reciting  prayers  before  the  doors  and 
receiving  the  alms  of  the  faithful.  Some  of  the  Buddhist 
temples  are  remarkable  monuments,  though  constructed 
entirely  of  wood.  The  visitor  to  Japan  cannot  go  to 
Kyoto  without  visiting  Nishi  Hongwan  ji  and  Higashi 
Hongwan  ji  ;  Kio  Midzoudera  ;  Chi  on  inn.  The  two  first 
are  to  be  found  in  the  town  itself,  and  do  not  possess  the 
imposing  surroundings  of  the  two  others.  Elevated  upon 
Hiei-zan,  they  are  framed  in  verdure  and  exceedingly 
fine  trees,  which  enhance  their  splendour  in  the  eyes 
of  the  spectator.  In  May  Kyoto  and  its  temples  and 
palace  attract  pilgrims  from  every  part  of  Japan. 

As  an  example  of  a  Shintoist  temple  one  must  see  the 
temple  of  Gi  on.  The  Shintoist  temples  are  made  of 
white  wood,  have  no  pictures  and  no  ornamentation 
except  a  mirror  and  a  sword,  legacies  given  to  the  first 
Emperor  by  the  divine  Amaterasu.  There  is  no  art  to 
be  found  there,  no  decoration  ;  the  roof  alone,  Chinese 
in  form  and  architecture,  though  less  massive  and 
more  slender  and  elegant,  is  often  a  marvel  of  con- 
struction. 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE  49 

XII 

In  the  beginning  of  their  intercourse  with  the  Japanese 
the  foreigners  lived  in  the  island,  maintaining  their  own 
nationality.  They  had  not,  it  is  true,  the  right  to  reside 
outside  the  limits  fixed  by  the  treaties  in  the  ports  of 
Tokyo,  Yokohama,  Osaka,  Kobe,  Nagasaki,  Niigata, 
Hakodati.  They  did  not  acknowledge  the  Japanese  law, 
and  their  consuls  could  alone  judge  them  and  sentence 
them  ;  and  when  they  journeyed  into  the  interior  it  was 
necessary  for  them  to  have  a  passport  given  them  by  the 
Japanese  authorities  upon  the  demands  of  their  Minister  ; 
and  they  could  not  deviate  from  the  itinerary  inscribed 
upon  the  passport  under  pain  of  being  escorted  to  the 
nearest  open  port. 

To-day,  follovsdng  the  revision  of  the  treaties  (signed 
for  France  in  1896),  all  foreigners  resident  in  Japan  must 
submit  to  the  Japanese  laws  and  regulations.  It  is  true 
that  they  can  travel  through  the  whole  interior  of  the 
country  vidthout  any  passport,  but  their  consuls  can  do 
nothing  for  them;  they  must  submit  completely  to 
Japanese  jurisdiction.  Consequently,  since  the  opera- 
tion of  the  new  treaties  many  old  European  residents 
have  quitted  Japan.  At  the  present  time  (December  31, 
1906,  latest  statistics)  there  is  a  total  of  19,129  foreigners, 
of  whom  13,000  are  Chinese  and  the  others  Asiatic. 
Foreigners  live  in  the  islands  of  the  Kising  Sun  upon 
the  same  footing  as  the  Japanese,  but  they  have  not 
the  right  to  own  the  soil  ;  they  are  only  permitted  con- 
tracts for  ninety-nine  years. 

The  Franco-Japanese  Treaty,  signed  at  Paris,  August  4, 
1896,  and  that  was  put  in  force  four  years  later,  granted 
to  the  French  **  lasting  protection  for  their  persons  and 

4 


50  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

property."  It  gave  them  permission  to  travel,  reside 
and  exercise  their  profession,  to  acquire,  possess,  and 
bequeath  by  succession  their  estates,  fortune,  and  per- 
sonal property  of  every  kind  ;  guaranteed  them  free  and 
easy  access  to  the  Courts  of  Justice,  and  permitted  them 
to  enjoy  complete  liberty  of  conscience.  In  everything 
concerning  agriculture  and  the  rights  of  ownership  of 
landed  property  it  is  understood  that  the  French  in 
Japan  will  enjoy  the  same  advantages  as  the  subjects 
of  the  most  favoured  of  nations. 

For  the  moment  this  clause  is  a  dead  letter,  as  no 
European  can  possess  land  in  the  Empire  of  the  Mikado. 
The  land,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  is  supposed  to  belong 
entirely  to  the  Emperor,  and  he  cannot  alienate  it  ;  he 
can  only  allow  it  to  be  held  on  lease. 


CHAPTEK  III 


Provinces  and  districts— II.    The  three  "  Shi  " — III.   The  forty-five 
"  Kens  "—IV.  Details  of  the  administration — V.  Principal  ports. 


Down  to  the  Mei  ji  era  (1868),  the  period  of  the  Imperial 
restoration,  Japan  poHtically  was  divided  into  provinces 
(Kuni)  to  the  number  of  eighty- six,  arranged  in  nine 
groups  : — 

1.  The  Imperial  provinces  (Go  kinai),  numbering  five. 

2.  Eight  large  divisions  (Do). 

These  last  divisions  were  :  Hokuroku-do,  Sanin-do,  and 
Hokkaido  in  the  north  ;  Tôkaidô  and  Tosando  in  the 
east  ;  Sanyo-do  and  Nankai-dô  in  the  south  ;  Sakai-do  on 
the  west. 

The  names  of  the  provinces,  or  Kuni,  are  no  longer 
used  politically,  but  as  they  are  still  used  occasionally 
even  officially,  the  names  of  them  are  enumerated  here. 

The  Go  kinai,  or  Imperial  provinces,  comprise  five  pro- 
vinces :  Yamashiro,  Yamato,  Kawachi,  Izumi,  Settsu. 

The  Tôkaidô  (circling  the  east  littoral)  includes  fifteen 
provinces  :  Iga,  Ise,  Shima,  Owari,  Mikawa,  Tôtômi, 
Suruga,  Kai,  Izu,  Sagami,  Musashi,  Awa,  Kazusa, 
Shimosa,  Hitachi. 

The  Tosando  (circling  the  eastern  mountains)  contains 
thirteen  provinces  :   Omi,  Mino,  Hida,  Shinano,  Kotzuke, 


52  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

Shimotzuke,  Iwaki,  Iwashiro,  Eikuzen,  Eikuchû,  Mutsu, 
Uzen,  Ugo. 

The  Hokuroku  do  (circuit  of  the  northern  continent) 
comprises  seven  provinces  :  Wakasa,  Echizen,  Kaga, 
Noto,  Etchu,  Echigo,  Sado. 

The  Saninido  (small  circuit  of  the  mountains)  has 
eight  provinces  :  Tamba,  Tango,  Tajima,  Inaba,  Hoki, 
Izumo,  Iwami,  Oki. 

The  Sanyo-do  (large  circuit  of  the  mountains)  com- 
prises eight  provinces  :  Harima,  Mimasaka,  Bizen,  Bi-chu, 
Bingo,  Aki,  Suo,  Nagato. 

The  Nankai-do  (circling  the  southern  littoral)  includes 
six  provinces  :  Kii,  Awagi,  Awa,  Sanuki,  lyo,  Tosa. 

The  Saikai-do  (circuit  of  the  western  littoral)  consists 
of  twelve  provinces  :  Chikuzen,  Chikugo,  Buzen,  Bungo, 
Hizen,  Higo,  Hyiiga,  Osumi,  Satsuma,  Iki,  Tsushima, 
most  of  the  Eyùkyû  isles. 

The  Hokkaido  (circuit  of  the  north  littoral)  is  com- 
posed of  eleven  provinces  :  Oshima,  Shiribeshi,  Iburi, 
Ishikari,  Hitaka,  Tokachi,  Teshio,  Kushiro,  Nemuro, 
Kitami,  Chishima  (Kurile  Islands). 

II 

To-day  Japan  is  divided  into  three  Shi,  or  towns,  and 
forty-five  Ken,  or  departments. 

The  three  Shi  are  :  Tokyo,  Kyoto,  Osaka.  Tokyo, 
capital  of  the  Empire  since  the  restoration  of  1868, 
formerly  Yedo,  capital  of  the  Shogun  or  Lieutenant- 
General,  is  the  seat  of  government  and  the  residence  of 
the  Emperor.  This  town  is  divided  into  districts  (Ku), 
and  contains  two  millions  of  inhabitants. 

The  districts    are  :    Kojimachi,   Kanda,  Nihombashi, 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  53 

Kyosbashi,  Shiba,  Azabu,  Akasaka,  Yotsuya,  Ushigome, 
Koishikawa,  Hongo,  Shitaya,  Asakusa,  Honjo,  Fukagawa. 

The  suburban  districts  are  :  Ebara  gôri  ;  Higashi  tama 
gori  ;  Minami  Toshima  gôri  ;  Kita  to  shima  gôri  ;  Minami 
Adachi  gôri  ;  Minami  katsushika  gôri. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  the  site  upon  which  Yedo  is 
situated  to-day  was  nothing  but  a  sandy  beach.  In  the 
fifteenth  century  a  warrior  named  Ota  Dôkwan  took 
possession  of  the  village  of  fishermen  situated  at  the 
estuary  of  the  Sumida,  and  called  it  Ye  do  (mouth  of  the 
river).  He  constructed  a  fortress  there  in  1466.  This 
fortress  was  seized  by  Hideyoshi  (Taikosama),  and  it  was 
his  successor,  leyasu,  who  in  1603  made  it  his  capital. 
It  became  also  the  capital  of  the  Shogun,  whilst  Kyoto 
(Miyato)  remained  the  capital  of  the  Emperors.  The 
Mikado  Mutsu  nito,  then  reigning,  was  installed  there  in 
1868,  and  in  September  changed  the  name  of  the  town  to 
that  of  Tokyo. 

"With  the  exception  of  the  official  buildings,  such  as  the 
administrative  offices,  the  barracks,  staff  office,  and  various 
schools,  &c.,  Tokyo  is  built  of  wood.  Consequently  incen- 
diaries commit  frightful  outrages,  and  often  burn  a  portion 
of  the  town,  which,  however,  is  rebuilt  within  fifteen  days. 
The  streets  are  wide  and  regular,  but  they  have  a  dreary 
aspect,  owing  to  the  grey  colour  of  the  wood,  the  effect  of 
the  inclement  weather. 

The  town  has  not  a  cheerful  appearance  at  all.  Electric 
tramways  run  through  the  principal  streets,  whilst  at  the 
same  time  the  jinrikisha,  or  carriages  drawn  by  men, 
move  about  in  all  directions. 

The  interesting  parts  of  the  town  are  the  parks  of 
Shiba,  where  two  of  the  Shoguns  are  interred,  and  the 
temples  and  the  gardens  surrounding  and  leading  up  to 


54  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

the  tomb,  which  are  very  beautiful.  In  the  middle  of 
the  park  the  Koyo-kwan,  or  Circle  of  the  Maple,  is 
situated.  It  is  a  very  recherche  Japanese  club,  and  gives 
a  very  good  idea  of  the  charming  Japanese  house.  There 
are  also  the  parks  of  Ueno,  another  resting-place  of  the 
Shoguns  at  the  side  of  Lake  Shinobazu  ;  the  hill  of  Atago- 
yama,  from  which  one  commands  the  whole  town  ;  the 
moats  and  the  outer  gates  of  the  ancient  castle  of  Yedo, 
which  still  exist  to-day  round  the  Imperial  Palace  ;  the 
great  Temple  of  Asakusa  and  the  dyke  of  Mukojima.  The 
parts  which  have  not  been  too  much  Europeanised  are 
also  picturesque  and  interesting. 

The  environs  of  Tokyo  are  much  frequented  on  fête 
days  ;  and  more  than  ever  at  the  present  time,  owing  to 
the  facilities  accorded  by  the  railways,  the  population  can 
conveniently  indulge  in  their  excursions  round  about  the 
town  every  time  that  a  Buddhist  saint  has  to  be  honoured. 

Kyoto,  the  ancient  capital  (Miyako)  of  the  Mikado  and 
the  sacred  city  of  Japan,  is  situated  in  the  province  of 
Yamashiro,  about  ninety-five  miles  south-west  of  Tokyo  ; 
it  is  only  three  hours  by  rail  from  Osaka  and  Kobe.  The 
town  is  divided  into  two  parts  :  Kami  Kio  Ku,  or  the 
high  town,  and  Shimo  Kio  Ku,  or  the  lower  town. 

In  784  the  Imperial  dynasty  definitely  fixed  its  capital 
at  Kyoto,  and  it  was  not  till  1868,  when  the  suppression 
of  the  Shogunate  took  place,  that  the  Imperial  throne 
was  transferred  to  Tokyo.  At  the  present  moment  the 
town  of  Kyoto  has  fallen  into  decay,  and  shows  no  sign 
of  activity.  It  is  held  in  respect  as  the  religious  capital 
of  Japan,  and  the  traveller  can  easily  pass  a  month  there 
studying  Buddhist  architecture  in  all  its  manifestations. 
The  principal  excursions  are  to  the  palace  of  the  Emperors, 
to  Higashi  Hongwan  ji,  Nishi  Hongwan  ji,  Chi  on  In, 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  55 

Kiomitzu  dera,  San  ju  san  guen  do,  Honkoku  ji,  the  hill 
of  Hieizan,  Lake  Biwa  and  the  rapids  of  Arashiyama  or 
Katsuragawa. 

Kyoto  manufactures  embroideries,  porcelain,  and  bronze. 

From  a  commercial  point  of  view  Shi  Osaka  is  really 
the  most  important  of  the  three  towns.  It  is  situated 
about  107  miles  from  Tokyo,  and  37^  miles  from  Kyoto. 

Numberless  boats  traverse  it  in  every  direction,  so  that 
the  navigation  practicable  for  transport  by  water  pene- 
trates to  the  very  heart  of  the  town,  the  population  of 
which  to-day  reaches  one  million  inhabitants. 

The  industry  of  Japan  is  thus,  so  to  speak,  concentrated 
in  this  town,  well  situated  near  the  sea  and  in  the  centre 
of  Japan,  Osaka  is  the  great  commercial  market  of  the 
Empire,  and  is  in  close  touch  to-day  by  water  and  by  made 
roads  with  every  part  of  Japan.  Industries  are  in  a  very 
flourishing  condition,  and  the  majority  of  the  population 
are  in  easy  circumstances. 

Ill 

The  Ken,  or  departments,  were  at  first  thirty-five  in 
number. 

1.  Ken  of  Kanagawa.  It  is  composed  of  three  districts  : 
Tsudzuki,  Tachibana,  and  Kuroki,  with  a  part  of  the 
district  of  Tama,  province  of  Musashi,  and  also  the 
province  of  S  agami.  The  headquarters  are  at  Yokohama, 
the  port  where  formerly  most  foreigners  resided.  The 
principal  towns  of  this  department  are  :  Odawara,  in  the 
province  of  Sagami  ;  Yokosuka,  in  the  same  province,  not 
far  from  Yokohama,  is  a  fortified  town  and  arsenal  for  the 
Imperial  navy. 

2.  Ken  of  Hyogo  includes  under  its  administration  five 


56  THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

districts  of  the  province  of  Settsu  and  two  districts  of 
the  province  of  Tamba,  as  well  as  the  three  provinces  of 
Harima,  Awaji,  and  Tajima.  The  chief  place  in  Kobe 
is  the  province  of  Settsu.  This  port,  open  to  outside  trade 
since  the  first  year  of  Mei  ji  (1868),  is  contiguous  on  its 
western  side  to  that  of  Hyogo.  To  the  south-east  of 
Kobe  the  bay  of  Osaka  lies,  and  a  little  further  the  strait 
of  Tomoshima.  The  town  of  Himeji  is  likewise  part  of 
this  ken  ;  it  is  situated  in  the  province  of  Harima,  about 
35J  miles  west  of  Kobe. 

3.  Ken  of  Nagasaki.  Consists  of  three  provinces  : 
Hizen,  Iki,  and  Tsushima.  The  chief  town  is  Nagasaki, 
in  the  province  of  Hizen,  distant  from  Tokyo  some  900 
miles.  The  port  of  Nagasaki,  open  for  a  long  period  to 
trade  with  China  and  Holland,  was  only  free  to  other 
countries  in  the  sixth  year  of  Ansei  (1859).  It  is  closed  on 
three  sides  by  mountains  ;  on  the  fourth,  which  is  that  of 
entry,  it  is  protected  by  numerous  islands  and  islets. 
This  port  is  one  of  the  safest  and  deepest  in  Japan. 
The  town  of  Saga,  in  the  province  of  Hizen,  is  about 
70  miles  north-east  of  Nagasaki. 

4.  Ken  of  Niigata.  It  comprises  the  provinces  of 
Echigo  (one  district  of  which,  Tsugawa,  formed  part 
of  the  Ken  of  Fukushima)  and  Sado.  The  chief  town 
is  Niigata,  in  the  province  of  Echigo,  some  225  miles 
from  Tokyo.  It  has  a  population  of  nearly  fifty  thousand 
inhabitants. 

The  port  of  Niigata  was  opened  to  foreign  trade  in  the 
first  year  of  Mei  ji  (1868),  but  being  situated  on  the  mouth 
of  the  Shinanogawa,  it  is  consequently  shallow  and  in- 
convenient. 

5.  Ken  of  Aïchi.  It  is  formed  of  two  provinces,  Owari 
and  Mikawa,   the  headquarters   being  Nagoya,  in  the 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  57 

province  of  Owari,  situated  235  miles  from  Tokyo,  in 
the  middle  of  a  plain.  It  has  large  and  lively  streets, 
and  is  one  of  the  most  important  Japanese  centres. 
There  still  exists  a  magnificent  fortress  (Shiro),  the 
ancient  residence  of  the  Daimyo,  The  town  of  Okasaki, 
in  the  province  of  Mikawa,  is  situated  25  miles  south- 
east of  Nagaya. 

6.  Ken  of  Ishikawa.  It  is  formed  of  three  provinces  : 
Kaga,  Noto,  Etchii,  as  V7ell  as  seven  districts  in  the 
province  of  Echizen.  The  chief  town  is  Kanagawa,  in 
the  province  of  Kaga.  This  town  is  322  miles  from 
Tokyo  ;  it  is  crossed,  both  in  north  and  south,  by  two 
rivers,  the  Sai-gawa  and  the  Asano-gawa,  Kanagawa 
being  almost  in  the  centre  of  Hokuroku  do.  The  trade  is 
not  considerable.  The  principal  towns  in  this  department 
are  :  Fukui,  in  the  province  of  Echizen,  and  Toyama,  in 
the  province  of  Etchu. 

7.  Ken  of  Hiroshima.  Composed  of  the  two  provinces 
of  Aki  and  Bingo.  The  chief  place  is  Hiroshima,  in 
the  province  of  Aki.  Situated  625  miles  from  Tokyo. 
The  soil  of  the  environs  is  very  fertile,  and  the  town  is 
irrigated  by  several  water-courses.  The  important  town 
of  Fukuyama,  in  the  province  of  Bingo,  is  found  65  miles 
east  of  Hiroshima. 

8.  Ken  of  Wakayama.  Consists  of  the  province  of  Kii 
(several  villages  in  this  province  lying  east  of  the  river 
Kumano  form  part  of  the  ken  of  Miye).  Wakayama, 
about  407  miles  from  Tokyo,  is  the  chief  place.  This 
town  lies  at  the  entrance  of  the  bay  of  Osaka  ;  on  the 
west  it  touches  the  sea,  and  the  north  side  is  irrigated 
by  the  Kino-gawa.  Being  surrounded  by  hills  it  is  very 
picturesque. 

9.  Ken  of  Sakai.     It  comprises  three  provinces  :  Izumi, 


58  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

Yamato,  and  Kawachi.  The  chief  town  is  Sakai,  in  the 
province  of  Izumi,  and  370  miles  from  Tokyo.  Sakai  lies 
on  the  same  coast  as  Osaka  in  the  north  ;  it  is  irrigated 
by  the  Yamato-gawa,  and  quantities  of  fish  are  caught 
there.  Sakai  was  formerly  the  place  where  foreign 
navies  anchored. 

10.  Ken  of  Miyagi.  Consists  of  thirteen  districts  of 
the  province  of  Eikuzen  and  three  in  the  province  of 
Iwaki.  Sendai,  in  the  province  of  Eikuzen,  is  the 
principal  town.  It  is  traversed  on  the  south-west  by 
the  Hirose-gawa,  and  it  touches  Shinogama  and  Mat- 
sushima  on  its  east  side.  The  surroundings  of  this 
latter  form  one  of  the  most  beautiful  landscapes  of 
Japan.  The  principal  commodities  are  fish  and  salt. 
Sendai  is  207  miles  to  the  north  of  Tokyo. 

11.  Ken  of  Kochi.  Consists  of  the  two  provinces  of 
Tosa  and  Awa.  Principal  place  is  Kochi,  in  the  province 
of  Tosa  ;  it  is  577  miles  from  Tokyo.  On  the  east  is  the 
port  of  Urato  ;  the  Kami-gawa  runs  north  and  south. 
The  principal  productions  are  wood  and  fish. 

12.  Ken  of  Kumamoto.  Consists  of  the  province  of 
Higo,  the  capital  being  Kumamoto,  an  ancient  place 
of  great  importance.  It  is  situated  815  miles  from 
Tokyo  ;  watered  on  the  south  by  the  Shirakawa,  and 
bounded  on  the  north-west  by  a  group  of  mountains.  It 
is  one  of  the  five  towns  of  Saikai-do. 

13.  Ken  of  Shimane.  Consists  of  five  provinces  : 
Izumo,  Hoki,  Inabâ,  Iwami,  Oki.  The  chief  town  is 
Matsué,  in  the  province  of  Izumo,  57  miles  from  Tokyo. 

14.  Ken  of  Akita.  It  consists  of  a  part  of  the 
provinces  of  Ugo  and  Eikuchû.  Chief  town  Akita,  in 
the  province  of  Ugo. 

15.  Ken  of  Saitama.     Composed  of  part  of  the  pro- 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  59 

vinces  of  Musashi   and   Shimosa.     The   chief    town   is 
Urawa,  in  the  province  of  Musashi. 

16.  Ken  of  Chiba.  Consists  of  parts  of  the  provinces 
of  Shimosa,  Awa,  and  Kazusa.  The  chief  town  is 
Chiba,  on  the  gulf,  33  miles  from  Tokyo. 

17.  Ken  of  Ibaraki.  Consisting  of  parts  of  the 
provinces  of  Hitachi  and  Shimosa.  The  chief  town 
is  Mito,  in  the  province  of  Hitachi,  on  the  ocean, 
77  miles  from  Tokyo. 

18.  Ken  of  Tochigi.  Consists  of  the  province  of 
Shimotsuke.  The  chief  town  is  Tochigi.  An  important 
town  is  Utsunomiya,  the  place  of  departure  for  the  road 
and  the  railway  going  to  Nikko. 

19.  Ken  of  Gumma.  Consisting  of  the  province  of 
Kotzuke.  The  chief  town  is  Mayebashi,  70  miles  from 
Tokyo  ;  with  the  towns  of  Takasaki  and  Tomioka, 
Mayebashi  constitutes  the  most  important  centre  in 
Japan  for  the  silk  trade. 

20.  Ken  of  Miye.  Comprises  the  provinces  of  Ise, 
Iga,  and  Shima,  and  a  part  of  the  province  of  Kii,  The 
chief  town  is  Tsu,  282  miles  from  Tokyo. 

21.  Ken  of  Shizuoka.  Consisting  of  the  provinces  of 
Suruga,  Tôtômi,  and  Izu.  Shidzuoha,  in  the  province 
of  Suruga,  is  the  chief  town. 

22.  Ken  of  Yamanashi.  Consisting  of  the  province  of 
Kai.     Kofu  is  the  chief  town,  95  miles  from  Tokyo. 

23.  Ken  of  Shiga.  Consisting  of  the  provinces  of 
Omi  and  Wakasa  and  a  part  of  the  province  of  Echizen. 
Otsu  is  the  chief  town,  in  the  province  of  Omi.  Hikone, 
a  celebrated  town,  37J  miles  north-west  of  Otsu. 

24.  Ken  of  Gifu.  Comprises  the  provinces  of  Mino 
and  Hida.  Gifu  is  the  chief  town  ;  it  is  renowned  for  its 
manufacture  of  lanterns. 


60  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

25.  Ken  of  Nagano.  Consisting  of  the  province  of 
Shinano.  The  chief  town  is  Nagano  or  Zenkoji. 
Pilgrims  come  from  all  parts  of  Japan  to  visit  its 
famous  temple. 

26.  Ken  of  Fukushima.  Consisting  of  the  province  of 
Iwashiro,  and  a  portion  of  the  provinces  of  Iwaki  and 
Echigo.  The  capital  is  Fukushima,  and  the  principal 
town  is  Wakamatsu. 

27.  Ken  of  Iwati.  Consisting  of  parts  of  the  provinces 
of  Mutsu,  Kikuchii,  Kikuzen,  and  Mutsu.  Capital  is  Mo- 
rioka,  in  the  province  of  Eikuchù,  350  miles  from  Tokyo. 

28.  Ken  of  Aomori.  Composed  of  parts  of  the  province 
of  Mutsu.  Aomori,  situated  at  the  extremity  of  Honshu, 
is  the  capital,  477  miles  from  Tokyo. 

29.  Ken  of  Yamagata.  Comprises  the  province  of  Uzen 
and  a  part  of  the  province  of  Ugo.     Capital,  Yamagata. 

30.  Ken  of  Okayama.  Consisting  of  the  provinces 
of  Bizen,  Bitchii,  and  Munasaka.  Capital,  Okayama, 
province  of  Bizen. 

31.  Ken  of  Yamaguchi.  Comprising  the  provinces  of 
Suo  and  Nagato.  Capital,  Yamaguchi,  in  the  province 
of  Suo,  657  miles  from  Tokyo. 

32.  Ken  of  Ehime.  Comprising  the  provinces  of  lyo 
and  Sanuki.     Capital,  Matsuyama. 

33.  Ken  of  Fukuoka.  Comprising  the  provinces  of 
Chikuzen  and  Chikugo,  and  a  part  of  the  province  of 
Buzen.     Capital,  Fukuoka,  755  miles  from  Tokyo. 

34.  Ken  of  Oita.  Includes  the  province  of  Bungo  and 
a  part  of  the  province  of  Buzen.     Capital,  Oita. 

35.  Ken  of  Kagoshima.  Comprises  the  provinces  of 
Satsuma,  Osumi,  and  ïïyûga.  Capital,  Kagoshima,  the 
extreme  southerly  point  of  Kyùshyû,  945  miles  from 
Tokyo. 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  61 

The  thirty-five  ken  or  departments  have  been  formed, 
as  one  can  see,  out  of  the  ancient  provinces,  like  the 
departments  in  France. 

Since  1880  ten  other  ken  have  been  added,  some  of 
them  having  been  found  too  large.  Thus  in  Kyûshyû 
two  new  ken  have  been  created — Saga,  with  the  capital 
Saga  ;  and  Miyazaki,  with  the  capital  of  the  same  name. 
On  the  mainland  the  ken  of  Shimano  has  been  cut  in 
two  to  create  the  ken  of  Tottori  ;  in  the  east  of  Osaka, 
the  ken  of  Nara  has  been  created;  east  of  the  ken 
Ishikawa  the  ken  of  Toyama  has  been  divided  off;  and 
in  the  south  that  of  Fukui,  in  the  island  of  Shikoku,  the 
two  ken  of  Ehime  and  Kochi,  to  compose  Kagawa 
(capital,  Takamatsu)  and  Tokushima  (capital,  Toku- 
shima) . 

Finally,  the  Eyûkyû  Islands  have  been  incorporated 
with  the  Empire  under  the  name  of  Okinawa  Ken. 

The  island  of  Yezo  forms  a  cho  or  special  administra- 
tion. The  country  is  divided  into  departments  in  the 
same  way,  but  the  government  of  the  country,  which 
is  regarded  rather  as  a  colony  than  an  integral  part  of 
the  Empire,  is  strikingly  different  from  that  of  the  rest  of 
Japan. 

IV 

The  Japanese  system  of  government  is  minute  and 
intricate  in  its  details.  Its  red  tape  methods  may  be 
truthfully  said  to  have  a  resemblance  to  our  own.  It 
must  be  pointed  out  that  this  is  not  a  modern  element 
in  the  country  of  the  Rising  Sun.  In  former  times, 
under  feudalism  and  the  government  of  the  Shogunate, 
the  Government  officials  were  under  the  surveillance  of 


62  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

spies,  the  metsuke,  from  which  arose  the  practice  of 
making  reports  on  reports,  and  of  accumulating  docu- 
ments, and  that  quickly  became  very  frequent.  The 
investigation  into  the  infinitely  little  goes  on  in  every 
part  of  the  administration  in  Japan,  vidth  the  result 
that  any  one  having  business  with  a  Japanese  Govern- 
ment office  is  exasperated  by  the  host  of  trifling  and  insig- 
nificant details.  The  best  thing  is  to  have  as  little  resort 
to  them  as  possible.  In  travelling  in  the  interior  there  is 
not  a  day  in  which  you  are  not  supervised  by  the  authori- 
ties, who  morning  and  evening  send  the  police  to  know 
what  you  are  doing  and  what  you  have  come  for  if  you 
do  not  pretty  soon  depart. 

Ked  tape  meets  you  every  moment,  and  though  it  is 
all  accomplished  on  the  part  of  the  authorities'  agents 
with  exquisite  politeness,  it  is  none  the  less  annoying 
at  times. 

Apart  from  the  globe-trotters,  the  foreigners  residing  in 
Japan  rarely  go  beyond  the  environs  of  the  trade  ports, 
where  they  usually  live. 

The  trade  ports  where  Europeans  can  install  them- 
selves are,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  very  numerous,  but  the 
residents  belonging  to  the  different  nationalities  con- 
centrate themselves  particularly  at  Yokohama,  Kobe,  and 
Nagasaki. 

Yokohama  is  situated  on  the  bay  of  Tokyo,  quite  close 
to  the  Japanese  market  town  of  Kanagawa.  On  the 
one  side,  the  seacoast  side,  it  is  exposed  ;  on  the  other, 
it  is  backed  by  a  fairly  high  hill,  on  which  the  Europeans 
have  their  dwelling-houses,  their  offices  and  shops  being 
on  the  quay  and  the  streets  adjacent  to  it.  The  quay 
is  one  of  the  charming  promenades  of  the  town;  the 
port  is  poorly  sheltered  naturally,  but  protection  has  now 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  63 

been  furnished.  When  the  north-east  wind  is  blowing 
violently  there  are  often  severe  tempests.  Some  years 
ago  there  was  built  near  the  Custom  House  a  landing 
stage  where  four  packet-boats  can  be  anchored,  thus 
facilitating  the  embarking  and  disembarking  of  goods 
and  passengers. 

Formerly  the  port  of  Yokohama  was  the  great  business 
centre  for  Europeans  ;  one  found  there  a  numerous 
society,  a  club,  and  racecourse  ;  after  a  time  women 
installed  themselves  there,  several  families  were  born 
there,  all  of  which  gave  to  the  town  the  physiognomy 
of  a  small  European  colony.  Meanwhile  Kobe,  owing 
to  the  proximity  of  Osaka,  where  the  principal  manu- 
factures and  industries  of  Japan  are  carried  on,  has  been 
developing  rather  to  the  detriment  of  Yokohama.  In 
respect  of  geographical  situation,  Kobe  is  infinitely  more 
agreeable,  as  also  it  is  much  more  picturesque  than 
Yokohama,  and  its  environs  are  delightful.  As  to 
Nagasaki,  the  first  port  to  which  Europeans  were  ad- 
mitted (it  was  there,  since  1640,  that  the  Dutch  traded 
with  Deshima),  it  seems  to  have  rather  declined;  few 
Europeans  reside  there  and  trade  has  become  less  and 
less  prosperous.     The  other  open  trade  ports  are  : — 

Osaka  ;  large  steamers  do  not  come  right  up,  but  stop 
at  Kobe,  as  the  port  of  Osaka  itself  cannot  be  de- 
pended upon  for  anchorage.  Building  has  been  com- 
menced for  the  provision  of  a  port,  but  it  is  a  long 
way  off  completion  so  far. 

As  I  have  already  indicated,  this  great  town  is  the 
true  centre  of  commercial  and  industrial  activity  in 
Japan.  Situated  in  the  middle  of  the  richest  provinces 
of  the  Empire,  with  quick  communication  both  by  sea 
and   by  land  with    the   different   parts  of   the   Empire, 


64  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

Osaka  has  rapidly  become  the  principal  emporium  of 
the  islands  of  the  Eising  Sun.  The  great  chimneys 
of  the  factories  rear  themselves  at  the  side  of  the 
gigantic  fortress  made  of  enormous  stones  (testimony 
of  past  ages),  and  present  a  striking  contrast  of  the 
two  periods. 

In  addition  there  are  : — 

Niigata,  of  little  importance  ;  Yebisuminato,  in  the 
island  of  Sado,  unimportant  ;  Hakodate,  in  the  island 
of  Yeso,  a  town  with  60,000  souls,  but  not  much  im- 
portance from  the  standpoint  of  foreign  trade  ;  Kio 
mizu,  province  of  Suruga  ;  Take  toyo,  province  of  Owari  ; 
Nagoya,  which  is  not,  accurately  speaking,  a  port,  this 
being  at  Miya,  and  it  is  at  this  place  one  disembarks  to 
reach  the  town.  Large  ships,  however,  cannot  even 
enter  the  port  of  Miya,  and  it  is  more  particularly  by 
small  steamships  and  by  railway  that  transactions  are 
effected. 

Continuing,  we  have  Li  Yokka  ichi,  in  the  province  of 
Ise  ;  Shizaki,  province  of  Bingo  ;  Shimonoseki,  in  the 
province  of  Nagato,  which  has  not  much  importance, 
but  is  the  thoroughfare  for  all  the  ships  entering  the 
interior  sea  or  departing  from  it.  Moji,  province  of 
Buzen,  an  important  port  in  the  north  of  the  isle  of 
Kinshu,  the  terminus  of  the  railway  coming  from 
Nagasaki  ;  Wakamatsu,  province  of  Chikuzen  ;  Hakata, 
province  of  Chikuzen  ;  Karatsu,  province  of  Hizen  ; 
Sumi  no  ye,  province  of  Hizen  ;  Kuchi  no  dzu,  province 
of  Hizen  ;  Miike,  province  of  Chikuzen  ;  Tsuruga, 
province  of  Echizen  ;  Aomori,  province  of  Mutsu;  and 
several  other  small  ports  whose  names  it  is  not  necessary 
to  cite  here. 

Trade  flourishes  above  all  at  Yokohama,  Kobe,  OsaJia 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  65 

and  Nagasaki.  Tokyo,  though  situated  on  the  sea  at  the 
mouth  of  Sumida-gawa,  is  not  a  practicable  port  ;  it  has 
no  depth,  and  steamers  even  of  moderate  tonnage  cannot 
anchor  there.  The  four  great  ports  named  above  are 
furnished  with  all  the  modern  equipment  for  embarking 
and  unloading  and  placing  loads  in  docks.  The  admini- 
stration and  equipment  of  these  trading  ports  fulfil  every 
requirement  that  could  be  desired  by  modern  shipowners 
and  merchants. 

The  mail-boat  lines  that  sail  to  Europe  and  America 
start  from  Yokohama;  all  the  steamers  with  regular 
service  put  in  at  Kobe  and  Nagasaki. 


CHAPTEE   IV 


Routes  by  sea  and  land  to  reach  Japan.  The  Siberian  Railway  ;  navi- 
gation companies  having  a  service — II.  Cost  of  passage.  The 
Japanese  seacoast — III.  The  Inland  Sea  as  far  as  Kobe  ;  from  Kobe 
to  Yokohama. — IV.  American  route  and  companies  carrying  the 
Pacific  service — V.  Melancholy  aspect  of  the  Japanese  towns  for 
the  traveller  going  ashore. 


The  traveller  who  wishes  to  go  to  Japan  has  at  the 
present  day  an  embarrassing  variety  of  choice. 

Eemote  from  Europe,  there  were  periods  not  so  very  far 
distant  when  it  was  necessary  to  reckon  forty-five  full 
days  to  go  from  Marseilles  to  Yokohama,  whereas  now 
the  Land  of  the  Eising  Sun,  owing  to  land  communica- 
tion across  the  steppes  of  Siberia,  is  no  more  than  a 
twenty  days'  journey  from  Paris.  Here  are  the  several 
ways — the  Trans-Siberian  land  routes  and  the  sea  routes 
— by  which  one  can  reach  Japan. 

By  way  of  Siberia  :  Every  second  day  a  train  leaves 
Moscow  and  goes  through  Perm,  Ekaterinburg,  and 
Tioumen.  This  latter  town  was  the  last  stopping-place 
on  the  Eussian-Asiatic  railways  at  the  time  the  Eussian 
Government  undertook  the  tremendous  task  of  continuing 
the  line  as  far  as  Vladivostok.  From  Tioumen  the  line 
passes  over  Omsk,  Krasnoyarsk,  and  Irkutsk,  where  it 
extends,  rounding  the  Balkans,  over  Tchita,  Nertchinsk, 

66 


THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE  67 

and  penetrating  into  Manchuria  in  the  direction  of 
Kharbin. 

From  this  latter  point  it  splits  into  two  lines  :  the 
one  over  Port  Arthur,*  the  other  over  Vladivostok,  the 
extreme  point  of  the  Russian  communications.  From  this 
port  a  service  of  steamers  runs  to  Japan.  This  passage 
is,  however,  somewhat  long.  The  quickest  way  is  to  quit 
the  Eussian  train  at  Kharbin  and  travel  to  Dalny 
(Talienwan  Tairen),  when  the  steamer  transports  the 
passenger  as  far  as  Nagasaki.  The  Eussian  carriages 
are  extremely  comfortable  ;  indeed,  from  the  considera- 
tion of  comfort  they  leave  nothing  to  be  desired,  except 
that  the  speed  might  be  increased.  It  must,  however, 
be  said  that  at  first  there  existed  but  one  track,  which 
necessarily  retarded  the  progress  of  the  trains  ;  and  that 
now  the  line  is  still  quite  new,  has  been  very  rapidly 
constructed,  and  in  some  respects  prematurely  owing  to 
the  necessities  of  the  last  war,  and  is  not  therefore  every- 
where permanent. 

Time  will  remedy  these  small  defects,  and  when  the 
second  line  is  made  it  will  be  possible  to  go  by  express 
train  from  Paris  to  Pekin  in  ten  days. 

The  cost  of  the  journey  is  about  the  same  as  that  by 
sea.  One  must  reckon  first-class  fare  from  Paris  to  Naga- 
saki at  about  2,000  francs  (£79). 

Eoute  from  Marseilles  by  the  Indian  Ocean  : — 

Several  lines  start  from  Marseilles.  There  is  first  the 
Messageries  Maritimes,  whose  ships  leave  the  port  on 
Sundays  for  Port  Said,  Aden  (alternately),  Djibouti 
(alternately),  Colombo,  Singapore,  Saigon,  Hong-Kong, 
Shanghai,  Yokohama.  Formerly  this  Company  had  a 
handsome  fleet  of  very  comfortable  and  well-kept  boats. 

•  South  of  this  line  is  held  to-day  by  the  Japanese. 


68  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

Foreigners,  particularly  the  English,  came  in  crowds, 
much  preferring  them  to  the  English  boats,  but  unfortu- 
nately a  circumstance  occurred  which  deprived  the 
Messageries  of  its  English  clientele  and  a  considerable 
part  of  its  French  also.  This  arose  from  the  French 
Government  having  abolished  for  the  transport  of  its 
troops  to  Indo-China  the  great  vessels  which  had  been 
constructed  and  designed  for  this  exclusive  purpose,  such 
as  the  Mytho,  the  Bienhoa,  the  Shamrock,  and  made  a 
contract  with  the  Messageries  to  carry  the  officers  and 
soldiers,  with  the  result  that  the  Company  was  compelled 
to  Û11  its  packet  boats  with  troops  at  every  service.  It 
was  for  this  reason  that  the  foreigners  quitted  it.  Quanti- 
ties of  French  people  paying  their  own  expenses  did  the 
same,  with  the  result  that  at  the  present  day  the  boats  of 
the  Messageries  only  convey  the  military  and  official 
world.  Moreover,  the  service  is  greatly  inferior  to  what 
it  was  formerly. 

The  Peninsular  and  Oriental  is  an  English  Company 
making  the  passage  from  Marseilles  to  Japan  both  by  the 
Indian  Ocean  and  Shanghai,  but  few  people  patronise  it. 
It  is  almost  exclusively  used  by  officials  and  EngHsh 
merchants  from  India,  although  the  service  is  very 
regular  and  everything  very  clean.  It  is  only  sufficient 
to  say  further  that  you  get  "English"  comfort,  but  the 
food  is  very  inferior,  and  digestions  that  are  not  yet 
accustomed  to  the  disagreeable  English  cuisine  arrive  at 
Yokohama  in  a  bad  condition. 

North  German  Lloyd.  Everything  that  has  been  lost 
by  the  Messageries  has  been  secured  by  this  German 
Company.  It  is  true  that  the  boats  do  not  touch  at 
Marseilles,  but  as  it  is  not  much  concerned  with  a  French 
clientèle,  there  is  no  reason  for  stopping  at  a  French  port. 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  69 

It  has,  moreover,  two  places  of  call  in  the  north,  Antwerp 
and  Southampton,  and  two  in  the  south,  Genoa  and 
Naples.  At  the  present  time  the  North  German  Lloyd  is 
the  Company  carrying  the  largest  number  of  passengers 
for  the  Extreme  East.  The  boats  are  very  comfortable 
and  well  managed,  the  cuisine  is  good,  and  the  staff  very 
efficient.  There  is  but  one  thing  there  that  is  frightful, 
and  that  is  the  music,  with  which  one's  ears  are  wearied 
during  meals,  and  after  even.     There  is  too  much  music  ! 

Nip2)on  Yusen  Kioaisha.  This  Company  touches  at 
Marseilles.  The  boats  are  very  fine  ones,  such  berths  as 
there  are  being  most  comfortable.  But  few  passengers  are 
taken,  and,  moreover,  the  voyage  from  Marseilles  to  Japan 
is  very  prolonged  owing  to  the  lengthy  stay  they  make  in 
the  ports.  It  often  happens  that  they  remain  four  or  five 
days  in  a  port,  consequently  they  are  never  overcrowded, 
and  only  those  who  do  not  mind  a  delayed  passage  take 
them,  because  the  cost  is  considerably  lessened. 

In  addition  to  the  lines  of  boats  I  have  just  mentioned, 
and  that  have  a  regular  service  every  fifteen  days,  there 
is  likewise  an  Austrian  line  and  an  Italian  line,  but  the 
departures  and  arrivals  are  not  very  regular. 

II 

The  cost  of  the  passage,  except  in  matters  concern- 
ing the  Japanese,  Austrian,  and  Italian  Companies,  is 
nearly  the  same  for  all  classes  ;  for  first  class,  1,800  francs 
(.£71),  and  for  second,  1,100  francs  (£44).  Upon  the 
French  and  German  packet  boats  there  is  a  third  class, 
not  much  patronised,  however,  as  there  are  no  emigrants 
for  the  Eastern  countries  ;  there  are  only  merchants,  who 
go  first  class,  and  the  employés,  who  go  second.     The 


70  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

English  boats  of  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental  have  also 
first  and  second  class,  but  no  third.  All  the  companies 
issue  return  tickets,  the  longest  stopping  periods  being 
given  by  the  North  German  Lloyd. 

Nagasaki  is  the  first  Japanese  port  touched  by  the  mail 
boats.  The  entrance  to  it  is  wonderful.  Many  channels 
are  formed  by  the  verdant  islands  there,  and  whilst 
circling  the  islands  (of  which  the  Pappenberg  recalls 
the  martyrdom  of  numerous  Christians  whom  the 
Japanese  threw  over  the  cliff  heights  rising  sheer  over 
the  storm-beaten  rocks)  one  can  see  the  hill  in  front 
covered  with  foliage  and  fields  stretching  right  down  to 
the  sea.  Here  and  there  the  grim  rocks  rise  above  the 
waves,  and  in  places  the  coast  rises  sheer,  great  cedar- 
trees  raise  their  heads,  and  amidst  them,  protected  by 
their  shade,  little  temples  are  to  be  distinguished,  perched 
here  and  there  upon  places  that  seem  at  first  sight 
most  inaccessible. 

Numerous  fishing-boats  sail  the  bay.  The  town, 
hitherto  hidden,  reveals  itself  by  degrees  as  one  nears 
the  further  end  of  the  bay,  and  right  in  front,  at  the 
further  end,  is  to  be  found  Deshima,  the  little  tongue  of 
land  to  which  the  Dutch  were  formerly  confined,  and  of 
which  there  is  nothing  to-day  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
rest  of  the  town.  Behind  Deshima,  and  on  either  side, 
the  town  extends,  with  its  little  low  houses  and  narrow 
streets.  It  rises  abruptly,  perching  its  buildings  upon 
the  hill  round  the  great  red  temple,  the  view  from  which 
commands  the  whole  bay. 

A  little  beyond  Deshima,  on  the  right  of  the  Japanese 
town,  the  European  habitations,  all  built  in  terraces,  are 
situated  :  the  different  Consulates,  the  Bellevue  Hotel, 
the  institutions  and  Church  of  the  Catholic  Mission,  of 


THE   JAPANESE  EMPIRE  71 

the  Sisters,  and  the  School  of  the  Marist  Brothers. 
At  the  base  of  the  hill  there  is  the  business  street,  with 
the  new  hotel  right  on  to  the  quay,  and  warehouses, 
banks,  business  agencies,  and  all  the  general  storekeepers 
and  ships'  chandlers  and  victualling  stores  generally. 

For  Japan,  Nagasaki  is  a  port  of  extreme  importance 
on  account  of  the  safety  and  depth  of  its  bay,  and  of  its 
situation  on  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Empire,  facing 
China  and  Korea. 

Facing  Nagasaki,  on  the  other  side  of  the  bay,  are 
installed  the  foundries  and  workshops  for  repairing  and 
building.  At  the  present  day  Nagasaki  has  a  population 
of  nearly  180,000  inhabitants. 

Ill 

On  leaving  the  port  of  Nagasaki  vessels  return  north 
by  the  west  coast  of  the  island  of  Kyushu,  and  enter  the 
Setouchi,  or  Inner  Sea,  by  the  Shimonoseki  channel. 
This  Inner  Sea,  celebrated  throughout  the  world  for  the 
beaaty  of  its  verdant  scenery  and  its  numberless  little 
islands  sown  with  temples,  built  so  high  up  that  one  has 
to  raount  one  hundred  steps  and  more  to  reach  them,  is 
neatly  subdivided  by  these  little  islands  into  six  open 
spaces  called  nada  (violent  current  whirlpool),  which  are 
called  after  the  provinces  whose  coasts  they  wash  :  Izumi 
naia,  Harima  nada,  Bingo  nada,  Mishima  nada,  lyo 
nada,  Suô  nada. 

The  Inner  Sea  communicates  on  the  south  with  the  great 
ocean  by  two  passages,  one  between  Honshu  and  Shikoka, 
the  other  between  Shikoku  and  Kyushu.  Upon  the  east 
it  joins  the  Sea  of  Japan  by  the  strait  separating  Kyushu 
from  Honshu,  then  on  the  south  in  Kyushu  is  the  port  of 


72  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

Moji,  on  the   north  in  the  province  of  Nagato,  ken  of 
Yamaguchi,  there  is  the  port  of  Bakan  or  Shimonoseki. 

The  Inner  Sea  is  navigable  in  all  seasons  at  night  no 
less  than  in  the  day,  owing  to  the  system  of  very  com- 
plete and  very  perfect  beacons  erected  at  every  point  by 
the  Japanese  Government.  Nowadays  the  tides  and  cur- 
rents are  thoroughly  known,  and  are  very  regular  on  the 
east  and  west  outlets  of  the  Ocean  and  Sea  of  Japan  ; 
in  some  places  where  the  islands  are  very  narrowed,  in 
the  interior  for  instance  of  Setouchi,  they  are  excremely 
violent. 

The  traveller  should  so  arrange  matters  that  he  sails 
the  Inner  Sea  of  Japan  during  the  daytime.  The  most 
practical  way  is  to  leave  the  big  mail  steamer  at  Shimo- 
noseki and  take  one  of  the  numerous  little  coasting  ships 
engaged  in  this  trade  for  the  crossing  to  Kobe.  The 
scenery  is  more  worthy  of  careful  attention  than  any 
other  in  Japan  ;  not  because  the  nature  that  one  is  in  the 
presence  of  is  grand,  for  on  the  contrary  it  is  nature  which 
is  sweet  and  attractive,  charming  by  reason  of  its  green- 
ness, its  villages,  temples,  and  flowers,  all  of  them  delicate 
and  graceful  ;  and  when  the  sun  is  shining  upon  the  whole 
scene  and  marking  out  on  the  distant  blue  horizon  the 
hills  of  Kyushu  and  Shikoku,  one  never  tires  of  this 
landscape,  so  exquisite  and  gentle,  and  that  nevertheless 
nourishes  a  nation  of  hardy  warriors. 

About  twelve  hours'  journey  must  be  reckoned  on  the 
Inner  Sea  from  Nagasaki  to  Kobe.  If  the  port  of 
Nagasaki  is  excellent  and  entirely  safe,  the  same  cannot 
be  said  of  the  port  of  Kobe  or  Hyogo.  (Kobe  is  the 
town  in  which  Europeans  reside,  Hyogo  the  Japanese 
town.  They  are  only  separated  by  a  bridge  over  a  dry 
river.) 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  73 

At  first  vessels  were  obliged  to  anchor  in  the  big 
roadstead,  the  port  having  no  protection  from  the  open 
winds,  but  now  the  authorities  have  erected  a  pier 
stretching  a  good  way  into  the  sea,  which  the  mail  boats 
may  alone  make  use  of  (by  paying  a  sufficiently  high 
fee)  ;  but  boats  with  cargo  have  to  anchor  some  way  out, 
which  is  a  great  disadvantage  in  the  embarking  and 
unloading  of  merchandise. 

The  European  town  of  Kobe  is  fairly  dainty,  and 
stretches  along  the  seashore.  Here  are  situated  the 
hotels,  banks,  shops,  foreign  consulates,  also  some  very 
elegant  houses  whose  walls  are  also  faced  with  red 
brick. 

Further  on,  beyond  the  railway  line,  the  other  side  of 
the  Sannomiya  station,  upon  a  pleasant  though  not 
high  hill,  the  Europeans  have  built  their  private  resi- 
dences, to  which  they  repair  every  evening  after  the 
closing  of  their  offices.  The  air  there  is  finer  and  the 
quietness  more  refreshing. 

Kôbe-Hyôgo  has  a  population  of  285,000  inhabitants, 
according  to  the  latest  statistics  of  the  Empire  recorded 
(1908). 

It  is  generally  reckoned  that  the  sea  journey  from 
Kobe  to  Yokohama  takes  thirty  hours.  It  is  the  part  of 
Japan  where  navigation  is  at  its  worst  at  all  times — in 
winter  because  of  the  north-east  monsoon  with  its 
violent  wind,  in  summer  because  following  on  the 
monsoon  come  the  rains,  which  are  often  accompanied 
by  frightful  typhoons.  Navigation  is  especially  difficult 
across  the  channel  of  Owari  ;  right  up  to  the  entrance  of 
the  bay  of  Tokyo  one  can  distinguish  nothing  of  the 
coasts,  or  at  most  the  island  of  Oshima  in  the  distance, 
whose  volcano  is  constantly  throwing  up  smoke.     The 


74  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

entrance  to  the  bay  is  formed  by  the  two  points  of 
Awa  and  Sagami,  and  at  the  heights  of  Uraga  is  very 
much  narrowed.  Finally  the  gulf  expands  and  permits 
of  Yokosuka  being  revealed  on  the  west,  and  then 
Yokohama  and  Tokyo. 

From  the  lighthouse  of  Jo  ga  shima,  opposite  Misaki, 
on  the  cape  of  Sagami,  the  Japanese  coast  is  delightful 
and  attractive  right  up  to  Yokohama  on  the  one  side  and 
Kamakura  and  Enoshima  on  the  other. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  find  more  charming  places  than 
the  bays  of  Yokosuka  and  Uraga,  and  more  agreeable 
shores  than  those  of  Kamakura  and  Enoshima.  The 
Europeans  residing  in  Japan  have  made  these  summer 
stations  fashionable,  and  the  Japanese  resort  there  to-day 
from  Tokyo. 

Yokohama,  which  is  situated  upon  an  old  swamp, 
and  was  formerly  contemptuously  assigned  to  Europeans 
as  their  ground,  has  extremely  beautiful  environs.  The 
town  itself  stretches  along  the  coast  and  is  backed  at 
the  base  by  a  fairly  high  hill  called,  by  all  Europeans, 
"  Bluff."  On  the  quay  and  on  the  two  parallel  streets  at 
the  rear  of  the  quay — Water  Street  and  Main  Street — 
there  are  situated  offices,  shops,  hotels,  banks,  and  shops 
of  the  general  store  dealers,  where  everything  is  sold. 

The  consulates  are  also  established  there,  and  upon  the 
hill  are  the  residential  houses,  to  which  the  people  return 
every  evening  directly  the  offices  close. 

Ever  since  the  opening  of  Japan  Yokohama  has  always 
been  the  great  commercial  town,  and  it  is  there  to-day 
that  the  colony  of  the  most  prominent  Europeans  and 
Americans  is  found.  The  "  United  Club  "  cements  them 
into  one  brotherhood,  and  in  their  reunions  there  is  no 
question  of  nationality,  it  is  enough  to  be  a  "  white." 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  75 

Magnificent  hotels  stand  on  the  quay.  The  Grand 
Hotel,  established  a  long  time  ago  by  a  Frenchman  and 
now  in  the  hands  of  an  American  society,  is  mainly 
frequented  by  Americans  passing  through  Japan,  the 
number  of  whom  is  always  very  great. 

The  Hotel  Oriental,  started  and  still  managed  by  a 
Frenchman,  is  luxuriously  furnished  and  decorated,  and 
has  a  cuisine  which  has  no  equal  elsewhere  in  Japan. 
Lastly,  the  Club  Hotel,  a  more  modest  establishment,  but 
where  one  can  be  as  comfortable  as  can  be  desired. 

The  hill,  or  "bluff,"  shows  a  charming  little  European 
town  in  no  way  distinguishable  from  one  of  the  localities 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Paris,  such  as  Ablon  or  Savigny- 
sur-Orge.  The  little  villas,  surrounded  by  gardens,  are 
very  pretty,  and  the  streets  are  extremely  clean  and  well 
kept,  but  there  is  no  special  characteristic. 

Beyond  the  little  town  there  is  the  race-course,  not  far 
from  Mississippi  Bay,  a  pretty  little  bay  so  designated 
by  the  Americans  when,  in  1852,  they  arrived  in  Japan 
for  the  first  time. 

The  race-course  is  the  great  promenade  for  the 
residents,  and  twice  a  year,  in  the  spring  and  the  autumn, 
the  whole  population  gathers  there.  These  are  the  fete 
days  of  Yokohama. 

The  surroundings  of  Yokohama  are  extremely  pleasant, 
and  advantage  is  taken  of  holiday  times  by  multitudes  of 
excursionists  who,  without  going  far  away,  want  to  spend 
their  leisure  time  amidst  the  scenery  of  the  little  hills 
which  raise  their  heads  all  round  the  bay. 

Nowadays,  thanks  to  the  railway,  the  immediate 
environs  of  the  town  are  somewhat  deserted,  though  one 
frequently  goes  further  out  only  to  find  that  the  country 
is  less  agreeable. 


76  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

IV 

Yokohama  is,  then,  the  extreme  point  for  the  mail 
boats  that  come  from  Europe,  likewise  for  those  coming 
from  America.  Many  companies  rmi  a  service  from  this 
side  as  well,  three  of  them  between  the  United  States 
and  Japan,  and  one  between  Canada  and  Japan.  The 
three  companies  leaving  Yokohama  for  the  United  States 
are  :  The  Occidental  &  Oriental,  which  goes  to  San  Fran- 
cisco ;  the  American  Pacific  Mail,  which  also  goes  to  San 
Francisco  ;  the  Nippon  Yusen  Kwaisha,  which  goes  to 
Seattle.  The  Canadian  Pacific  has  a  Canadian  service, 
which  goes  to  Vancouver. 

The  boats  take  twelve  days  from  Yokohama  to  Van- 
couver, and  fourteen  from  Yokohama  to  San  Francisco — 
the  American  boats  make  a  call  at  Honolulu  alternately  ; 
departures  take  place  every  fortnight. 

It  takes  thirty  days  by  this  route  from  Paris  to 
Yokohama,  the  periods  being  : — 


Prom  Paris  to  London      

1  day 

,,      London  to  Liverpool           

1    „ 

„      Liverpool  to  Montreal        

8  days 

,,      Montreal  to  Vancouver      

.         ...       5     „ 

,,     Vancouver  to  Yokohama 

...     12     „ 

Total        27  days 

But  as  one  cannot  travel  like  a  letter,  it  is  necessary  to 
allow  three  or  four  days  more,  as  I  have  said. 


From  Paris  to  Havre         ...        ...        ...        ...      1  day 

,,      Havre  to  New  York  7  days 

,,      Now  York  to  San  Francisco  ...         ...       5     ,, 

„      San  Francisco  to  Yokohama         14    ,, 

Total        27  days 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  77 

In  returning,  however,  the  voyage  costs  more  from 
this  side,  and  one  must  reckon  for  first  class,  3,000  francs 
(£119)  ;  the  shortest  stay  in  England  and  America  is 
expensive,  and  the  charges  on  the  railway  restaurants 
and  on  the  boat  are  also  very  high.  Consequently,  few 
travellers  other  than  Americans  choose  this  route,  which 
almost  doubles  the  expense  of  the  journey  by  the  Indian 
Ocean  or  Siberia. 


The  foreigner  must  not  expect  on  arriving  in  Japan  to 
find  the  monuments,  beautiful  architectural  buildings, 
towns  of  granite  and  marble  that  are  found  in  Europe 
and  America.  After  disembarking  at  Yokohama  or  Kobe 
or  Nagasaki  and  strolling  through  the  quasi-European 
streets  edged  with  bungalows,  and  villas  that  have  no 
style,  but  are  just  square  houses  of  brick  and  wood,  built 
without  concern  for  art,  simply  for  comfort,  and  for  the 
resistance  of  earthquakes,  he  is  anxious  to  become 
acquainted  with  a  native  town,  hoping  that  it  will  be  an 
agreeable  surprise  in  the  shape  of  something  smiling  and 
cheerful.  Does  not  Japan  for  the  traveller  from  Europe 
represent  the  charm  and  colour  of  Kakémenos  ? 

"Well,  he  must  be  undeceived.  The  aspect  of  every 
Japanese  town  is  profoundly  sad.  Everything  is  grey. 
The  low  houses  made  of  wood  faded  grey  by  time  and 
faced  with  black  tiles  succeed  one  another  uninter- 
ruptedly, the  people,  both  men  and  women,  dressed  in 
grey  (only  children  and  young  girls  are  dressed  in  bright 
colours  on  fête  days)  all  produce  an  impression  from 
which  gaiety  is  wholly  absent. 

In  the  great  centres  like  Tokyo,  Kyoto,  and   Osaka, 


78  THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 

some  huge  red  temples,  with  enormous  roofs,  give  certain 
parts  of  the  towns  a  peculiar  stamp  that  is  not  devoid  of 
real  grandeur,  but  the  towns  themselves  are  insignificant 
and  dreary. 

The  notable  thing  in  Japan  is  Nature,  always  pleasing 
and  gracious  in  winter  no  less  than  in  summer,  in  spring 
and  autumn  alike — Nature  that  is  not  great  and  imposing 
as  in  Java  and  India  and  certain  parts  of  Western  China, 
but  smiling,  mild,  and  agreeable.  Nature  in  Japan  does 
not  lay  hold  of  you,  it  is  refreshing  and  agreeable  ;  even 
its  dreadful  volcanoes,  the  Fujiyama,  the  Asama,  and  the 
Onsengatake,  present  nothing  appalling.  The  "  gigantic  " 
cascades,  like  those  of  Kegon  at  Chusenji  or  Kirifuri 
at  Nikkô,  seem  like  toy  cascades.  And  the  same  thought 
comes  always  to  the  mind  of  the  traveller  when  he  has 
been  a  little  while  in  this  country  :  how  it  is  that  this 
Nature,  gentle  and  mild  on  the  whole,  has  been  capable  of 
preserving  for  this  people  the  warlike  character  of  the 
ancient  "  men  with  two  swords,"  the  character  still  per- 
ceptible to-day  through  a  veneer  of  Western  civilisation, 
that,  to  tell  the  truth,  is  extremely  thin. 


CHAPTEK  V 

I.  The  life  of  the  people  ;  food — II.  Cost  of  life  in  Japan  ;  high  cost  of 
commodities  and  rent — III.  European  hotels — IV.  The  Japanese 
family,  its  constitution  and  customs  ;  position  of  the  wife  and 
children. 


The  food  in  general  is  very  simple.  Rice  is  the  staple 
article,  with  the  fish  with  which  the  seas  of  Japan 
abound.  To-day,  however,  bread  is  beginning  to  be 
found  almost  everywhere  in  the  principal  centres,  and 
also  butcher's  meat.  Nevertheless,  the  Japanese  prefers 
his  rice,  his  fish,  and  his  vegetables  ;  and  if  you  invite 
him  to  dinner  and  he  consequently  has  bread,  be  sure 
that  on  his  return  home  he  will  eat  his  bowl  of  rice, 
or  he  will  not  feel  that  he  has  dined. 

The  fish  is  prepared  in  a  variety  of  ways,  sometimes 
grilled  and  sometimes  uncooked.  It  is,  however,  only  on 
grand  occasions  that  raw  fish  (carp  or  dory)  is  offered  ; 
it  is  eaten  alive,  scaled  and  cut  up  as  it  is,  the  slices 
being  soused  in  a  black  sauce  called  shoyu.  At  first  it 
seems  odd,  but  one  soon  gets  used  to  it. 

Eggs  also  form  a  part  of  the  Japanese  food  ;  a  sort  of 
omelette  is  made  from  them,  which  is  eaten  cold.  In  the 
way  of  vegetables  the  Japanese  have  the  same  as  our 
own,  and  make  use  of  other  plants  :  the  bulb  of  the  lily, 
the  roots  of  the  lotus,  the  young  fern  stems,  the  young 
stalks  of  the  bamboo  cane  ;  they  are  very  fond  also  of 

79 


80  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

fruits  preserved  in  a  sort  of  vinegar  and  of  different  kinds 
of  herbs  preserved  in  a  particular  way.  On  the  whole, 
their  régime  is  mainly  vegetarian. 

At  times,  however,  when  they  have  friends,  they  kill  a 
fowl  and  make  "  torinabe,"  or  chicken  à  la  casserole, 
cooking  it  with  sugar  and  liquor  from  rice  (sake). 

Sweetmeats  are  much  appreciated  in  Japan  ;  there  are 
numerous  confectionery  shops,  and  sweet  vendors  in  the 
streets.  Every  one  in  Japan,  both  men  and  women, 
smokes  ;  the  cigarette  habit  has  become  fairly  widespread, 
and  the  custom  still  exists  of  smoking  little  metal  pipes, 
which  are  puffed  twice,  and  constantly  refilled  with 
tobacco  cut  as  fine  as  a  hair. 

It  has  often  been  remarked  how  clean  are  the  Japanese, 
and  I  have  said  the  same  thing  myself.  They  have  bodily 
cleanliness,  but  they  have  not  the  feeling  for  cleanliness 
about  things  in  the  same  degree  that  Europeans  have. 
For  instance,  every  Japanese  who  respects  himself  takes 
a  hot  bath  after  his  dinner  ;  if  he  does  not  possess  in  his 
own  house  a  "fouro"  (bathroom),  he  goes  to  the  public 
baths,  where  men  and  women  are  together,  separated  by 
a  cord  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  your  servant  will  wipe 
with  great  thoroughness  with  the  same  napkin  first  the 
bedroom  utensils  and  then  your  plate. 

II 

Thirty  years  ago  the  life  was  normal,  that  is  to  say, 
inexpensive,  and  a  Japanese  family  could  easily  live  upon 
fifteen  yen  a  month.  Those  were  good  times,  but  there 
was  no  "  glory."  To-day  there  is  glory,  but  it  costs 
dear,  and  life  has  become  so  costly  that  the  family  which 
formerly  expended  fifteen  yen  must  now  expend  fifty. 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  81 

It  follows  that  there  is  frightful  poverty  to-day  in 
Japan,  though  it  is  true  that  no  one  complains  of  it, 
and  that  up  to  now  it  has  been  borne  without  a  murmur. 
Will  this  continue  ?  Everything  is  taxed  to  the  utter- 
most, and  the  land  yields  all  that  it  can  yield,  because  it 
is  poor,  and  its  capabilities  are  very  limited. 

If  the  cost  of  living  has  thus  increased  for  the  native, 
it  is  naturally  even  worse  for  the  European,  who  is  not 
content  with  rice  and  vegetables,  but  needs  meat,  bread, 
wine,  oil,  vinegar,  refined  sugar,  tea,  coffee,  alcohol, 
and  the  various  other  goods  sold  by  grocers,  in  short,  a 
multitude  of  things  that  he  must  import  from  Europe  or 
America.  The  purchase,  conveyance,  and  high  custom 
duties  combine  to  send  up  the  price  of  commodities 
necessary  to  a  European  so  excessively,  that  it  is  necessary 
to  be  very  rich  to  live  in  Japan  to-day  in  the  European 
style. 

A  Japanese  house  for  which  one  formerly  paid  thirty 
yen  *  a  month  is  worth  to-day  ninety  ;  a  servant  to  whom 
one  paid  ten  yen,  now  demands  thirty,  and  everything  is 
in  keeping. 

Ill 

Formerly,  when  Japan  was  thrown  open  to  Europeans, 
the  latter  were  obliged  to  live  in  the  five  open  ports 
of  Yokohama,  Nagasaki,  Kobe,  Niigata,  and  Hakodate  ; 
they  were  not  allowed  under  any  pretext  to  reside 
elsewhere  without  a  passport  granted  by  the  Japanese 
authorities.  Later  they  were  admitted  to  the  towns 
of  Tokyo  and  Osaka,  but  they  were  confined  to  a 
certain   part   of    the   town   and  prohibited   from  living 

*  Yen  is  equivalent  to  about  2s. 

6 


82  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

outside  fixed  boundaries.  This  régime  came  to  an  end 
with  the  revision  of  the  treaties,  and  since  1899 
Europeans  have  the  right  to  reside  and  travel  anywhere 
in  Japan  without  being  disturbed.  In  all  the  great 
centres  hotels  arranged  after  the  European  fashion  are 
found  ;  they  furnish  an  Anglo-Japanese  cuisine  somewhat 
ambiguous  in  style. 

Tokyo  possesses  the  Imperial  Hotel,  a  great  stone 
building,  several  times  violently  shaken  by  earthquakes. 
The  Hôtel  Métropole,  more  modest,  supplied  at  one  time 
a  satisfactory  cuisine  when  it  was  under  the  management 
of  a  Frenchman. 

Kyoto. — The  Kyoto  Hotel,  very  well  placed  in  a 
central  part  of  the  town  ;  the  Myako  Hotel  ;  Nakamura 
rô  ;  Ya  ami  Hotel,  situated  in  the  Maruyama  Park — one 
can  make  an  agreeable  stay  there,  the  charge  is  about 
five  to  six  yen  per  day. 

Osaka. — The  Osaka  Hotel  at  Nakanoshima  and  the 
Nippon  Hotel.  The  hotels  at  Osaka  are  not  very  much 
frequented,  because  foreigners  prefer  to  stay  at  Kyoto 
and  Kobe,  and  only  come  in  passing  through  Osaka. 

Nagasaki. — Cliff  House,  Nagasaki  Hotel  upon  the  hill, 
the  Japan  Hotel,  Hôtel  Antonetti,  Hôtel  de  France 
upon  the  shore,  five,  six,  and  ten  yen  a  day. 

Kdhe. — The  Club  Hotel,  Grand  Hotel,  Hôtel  Français, 
Oriental  Hotel,  Ltd.,  the  oldest  hotel  of  Kobe,  and 
very  comfortable,  five,  six,  and  ten  yen  per  day. 

IV 

It  is  obvious  that  the  tourist  or  the  merchant  who 
wishes  to  experience  the  specific  flavour  of  the  locality 
can  always  stay  in  one  of  the  numerous  Japanese  hotels 


THE   JAPANESE    EMPIRE  83 

which  are  rivals  for  the  favour  of  the  traveller  all  over 
the  Empire.  He,  it  should  be  remembered,  must  be 
careful  to  draw  off  his  shoes  before  entering,  (Many 
Europeans  refusing  to  do  this  have  injured  the  good 
name  of  the  West,  and  have  closed  many  native  hotels 
to  the  foreigner.)  He  will  have  to  sit  upon  his  heels  with 
his  legs  folded  under  him,  and  he  will  sleep  on  the  tatami, 
or  large  straw  mat,  in  the  heavy  fouton  (wadded  quilt). 
On  the  whole,  it  is  not  disagreeable  to  spend  some  time  in 
a  Japanese  inn,  and  it  yields  the  opportunity  of  coming 
into  touch  with  native  life  and  customs. 

Notwithstanding  the  introduction  of  foreigners  into 
the  great  towns,  it  is  evident  that  manners  have  been  in 
no  way  modified  thereby  ;  a  nation  does  not  change  its 
character  in  the  space  of  fifty  years,  and  if  it  has  been 
relatively  easy  to  adopt  the  material  civilisation  of  the 
West,  it  has  been  more  difficult  for  it  to  change  com- 
pletely its  social  system. 

In  Europe  the  home  is  created  by  the  woman,  the 
mother  of  the  family  ;  it  is  round  her  that  everything 
centres,  and  she  is  the  guiding  star  for  every  one. 

In  Japan  there  is  no  home.  The  wife  does  not  count, 
the  father  alone  exists,  and  is  the  pivot  of  the  Japanese 
family  ;  he  is  the  representative  of  the  race  and  its  heir. 
Notwithstanding,  unlike  certain  Eastern  countries,  where 
the  wife  is  shut  up  or  held  in  a  totally  inferior  position, 
in  Japan  the  wife  is  not  relegated  to  a  jealously  kept 
seclusion  ;  she  holds  an  honourable  rank  in  society,  and 
shares  the  recreations  of  her  relatives  and  her  husband, 
although  she  is  never  initiated  into  their  affairs.  Allowed 
much  freedom,  she  rarely  abuses  this  liberty,  although 
naturally  the  Japanese  are  no  more  free  of  certain  family 
"  tragedies"  than  Europeans. 


84  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

Nowadays  the  intelligence  of  Japanese  women  in 
certain  classes  is  as  highly  cultivated  as  that  of  the 
men.  Moreover,  in  former  times  the  education  of  the 
women  attained  a  high  degree  of  intellectual  culture, 
and  more  than  one  feminine  name  is  to  be  found 
amongst  the  historians,  the  moralists,  and  the  poets. 

Without  being  beautiful  the  Japanese  women  are  very 
gay  and  agreeable  companions.  They  have  much  grace 
and  elegance  of  manner,  except  when  they  dress  them- 
selves in  the  European  style,  when  they  have  an  awk- 
ward air  and  appear  wooden. 

Formerly  the  married  woman  throughout  her  whole 
life  was,  so  to  speak,  in  tutelage  ;  she  depended  upon  her 
husband,  or,  failing  him,  upon  her  eldest  son,  and  had  no 
legal  rights  ;  her  testimony  was  not  admitted.  Her 
husband  could  introduce  at  his  own  discretion  as  many 
concubines  as  he  liked  under  the  conjugal  roof,  and  could 
intimate  his  intention  of  divorce  just  as  he  chose  ;  on  the 
other  hand,  under  no  circumstances  could  she  demand 
divorce. 

The  condition  of  the  wife  has  been  changed  by  law  to- 
day, though,  practically  speaking,  the  old  system  still 
exists,  and  the  Japanese  wife  is  still  treated  as  a  doll 
rather  than  a  companion  and  intimate.  There  is  at  the 
same  time  growing  up  a  Japanese  womanhood  which  is 
"  up  to  date,"  and  beginning  to  tread  the  path  of  the 
feminists  and  suffragettes.  The  infant  is  never  at  birth 
swaddled,  and  there  is  no  system  of  wrapping  restraint  to 
hinder  his  free  development. 

At  the  thirty-first  the  boys,  and  on  the  thirtieth  day 
the  girls,  were  formerly  brought  to  the  temple  to  be  given 
the  name  which  the  priestess  in  charge  of  the  temple 
chose.     Nowadays  the  infant  is  registered  at  birth  by  the 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  85 

mayor  of  the  district  or  of  the  commune  as  in  Europe,  and 
he  is  given  but  one  name,  though  in  ancient  times,  and 
even  at  a  not  very  remote  period,  several  were  chosen  for 
him,  which  were  in  addition  frequently  changed. 

The  child  in  Japan  is  greatly  indulged.  He  is  allowed 
to  do  what  he  likes,  never  rebuked  and  never  beaten,  all 
his  caprices  are  gratified,  and  he  is  stuffed  with  goodies 
and  sweetmeats.  But  from  his  youth  up  there  is  incul- 
cated in  him  contempt  for  death  and  love  of  country  and 
Emperor  ;  he  is  also  taught  to  be  very  polite  and  deferential 
to  those  who  are  old  and  his  superiors. 

About  the  age  of  seven  years  boys  and  girls  alike  go  to 
the  elementary  schools,  where  they  learn  the  alphabet 
and  writing,  a  little  geography  and  arithmetic.  Those 
who  wish  to  pursue  a  complete  course  of  study  are  obliged 
to  first  commit  to  memory  a  certain  number  of  Chinese 
letters,  without  which  they  could  not  obtain  any  real 
education.  This  seems  almost  like  a  wasting  of  time, 
but  it  is  not  so  really  ;  for  at  the  same  time  that  they  are 
learning  the  letters,  they  are  learning  the  history  and 
ancient  literature  of  their  own  country. 

The  festivals  especially  dedicated  to  children  are 
numerous  in  Japan.  The  most  important  of  them 
merit  a  special  description.  That  for  girls  is  called  the 
festival  of  Hina  no  sekku,  or  Hino  no  matsuri,  and  it 
takes  place  on  the  third  day  of  the  third  month.  The 
festival  for  boys  is  called  Go  gatsu  no  sekku,  and  it  is 
celebrated  on  the  fifth  day  of  the  fifth  month. 

The  first  of  these  fêtes  is  specially  dedicated  to  girls, 
and  it  is  the  great  annual  day  of  rejoicing  for  them.  The 
Europeans  have  surnamed  it  the  "Feast  of  Dolls," 
because  on  this  day  each  family  exhibits  the  dolls 
collected  and  kept  for  many  generations. 


86  THE   JAPANESE    EMPIRE 

For  days  before  the  fête  one  can  see  in  all  the  shops 
collections  of  pretty  dolls  measuring  from  8  to  25  inches, 
more  or  less  richly  clad.  Every  family  that  has  had  a 
child  born  during  the  year  buys  a  couple  of  dolls  to  be 
given  her  as  playthings. 

The  little  Japanese  girl  takes  great  care  of  the  dolls 
bought  on  the  day  of  the  festival  of  Hinasama,  and  when 
she  is  grown  up  and  marries  her  dolls  follow  her  into  her 
new  abode.  She  gives  them  to  her  own  daughters,  and 
adds  to  the  collection  every  time  a  girl  is  born.  On  the 
third  day  of  the  third  month  all  the  dolls  of  the  family 
are  exhibited  in  the  finest  room  for  every  one  to  see. 
The  dolls,  made  of  wood,  represent  the  Emperor  and 
Empress  ;  the  old  nobility  of  Kyoto  or  Kuge,  with  their 
wives  and  daughters  ;  the  Court  musicians,  each  one 
of  whom  is  carefully  represented  with  his  instrument. 
Sometimes  also  the  dolls  embody  the  Kami  (Shintoist 
gods),  or  mythological  and  historical  personages.  Nor  is 
it  sufficient  to  merely  set  up  rows  of  high  dignitaries  and 
sacred  personages.  Great  pains  have  been  taken  to  sur- 
round them  with  all  the  articles  necessary  in  daily  life — 
little  lacquer  tables,  miniature  household  utensils,  bowls, 
cups,  travelling  trunks,  &c. — everything  proportioned  to 
the  size  of  the  dolls.  Then  rice  water  and  rice  and  dry 
fish  (katsuobushi)  are  offered  to  the  Emperor  and 
Empress,  and  the  young  daughters  with  their  mother 
and  friends  surrender  themselves  to  the  joys  and  pleasures 
of  the  festival. 

The  fifth  day  of  the  fifth  month  is  the  great  day  for 
boys.  Here  we  are  in  all  the  paraphernalia  of  war. 
Indeed,  for  some  time  prior  to  the  fifth  of  the  month  the 
shops  in  the  town  display  a  number  of  wooden  effigies 
and   statues   of   demi-gods   and   heroes  clad   in    shining 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  87 

armour,  and  generals  and  soldiers  of  bygone  days; 
warriors  who  have  covered  themselves  with  glory,  notably 
Taiko  Sama  and  Kato  Kiyomasu,  some  on  foot,  some 
mounted  on  gaily  caparisoned  horses.  Everywhere  red 
predominates  in  the  flags  and  banners  hung  in  profusion 
from  the  roofs  of  the  houses.  The  shop  windows  are 
dressed  with  lances,  bows  and  arrows,  and  swords  arranged 
in  special  racks. 

Every  family  in  which  a  son  is  born  makes  a  point  of 
collecting  soldiers  and  arms,  so  much  so  that  it  is  difficult 
for  certain  families  on  the  fête  day  to  find  a  room  large 
enough  to  contain  the  display.  In  addition  to  the  exhibi- 
tion, each  family  to  whom  a  son  has  been  born  during  the 
year  has  an  immense  fish  of  inflated  paper  attached  to  a 
long  bamboo  rod  waving  from  the  top  of  the  house,  so 
that  every  year  also  on  the  fifth  day  of  the  fifth  month  a 
countless  number  of  enormous  paper  fishes  waving  in  the 
wind  from  the  tops  of  the  houses  are  to  be  seen.  The 
idea  is  most  original.  The  fish  represented  is  the  carp, 
supposed  by  the  Japanese  to  breast  the  torrent  with  ease, 
and  symbolising  that  man  must  struggle  against  and 
subdue  the  storms  of  life  itself. 

The  Japanese  house  is  not  in  reality  a  house  ;  it  has  a 
roof  open  to  the  four  winds,  without  walls  or  beams  to 
support  it.  The  only  enclosed  place  is  represented  by  the 
to,  a  sort  of  doors  that  slip  into  grooves,  and  that  are 
closed  at  night  when  the  family  have  retired  to  rest.  In 
the  rooms  there  is  nothing,  no  furniture,  not  even  a  seat. 
Only  on  the  floor  are  to  be  found  some  mats  of  fine 
texture,  though  strong,  upon  which  the  people  sit  with 
their  legs  folded  under  them.  In  this  way  they  eat,  talk, 
and  smoke,  sitting  round  a  pan  with  burning  charcoal. 
For   meals   the   servant    (or   wife  in  households   of   the 


88  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

people)  brings  small  tables  bearing  everything  that  is 
needed:  soup,  fish,  vegetables,  a  large  wooden  bucket 
of  very  clean  white  wood  containing  the  hot  rice,  from 
which  every  one  takes  as  much  as  he  wishes  in  a  bowl. 
Rice  there  is  what  our  bread  is  to  us. 

As  a  rule  the  Japanese  has  three  meals  a  day.  He 
makes  a  good  meal  on  rising,  not  contenting  himself  with 
our  one  cup  of  coffee  ;  he  eats  also  in  the  middle  of  the 
day  and  in  the  evening.  The  middle  day  meal  is  the 
least  substantial  ;  in  the  evenings  they  often  take  a  little 
sake  or  rice  water. 

In  the  evening  after  dinner  the  Japanese  takes  his 
bath.  To  plunge  into  a  tub  of  boiling  water  of  40°  and 
even  45°  of  heat  after  a  good  dinner  is  a  custom  which 
amazes  the  Europeans  who  have  lived  in  Japan.  Families 
in  good  circumstances  have  a  tub  in  their  own  homes  ;  as 
to  the  people,  they  go,  as  I  said  above,  to  the  public 
baths.  After  this  the  Japanese,  red  like  lobsters,  make 
preparations  for  the  night. 

From  out  of  the  cupboard,  concealed  in  a  side  of  the 
boards,  they  draw  the  great  mattress,  named  a  fouton, 
which  is  stretched  on  the  floor  over  the  mats.  Every  one 
sleeps  in  this  way  without  any  covering,  and  with  just  a 
cotton  kimono  serving  as  nightgown.  This  experience 
has  often  happened  to  me  when  hunting  or  travelhng. 

In  Tokyo  to-day  there  are  to  be  found  European  houses, 
built  by  distinguished  personages  and  some  of  them  by 
wealthy  Japanese.  Contiguous  to  them,  and  often  even 
attached  to  them,  the  Japanese  house  stands,  and  it  is  in 
the  Japanese  house  that  one  lives.  The  European  house 
serves  for  those  occasions  when  one  holds  a  reception  of 
foreigners,  or  wishes  to  indulge  in  the  luxury  of  a  reception 
in  the  European  style. 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  89 

The  Emperor  himself  lives  in  a  Japanese  palace 
sumptuously  decorated,  which  I  was  able  to  visit,  as  it 
had  just  been  finished,  although  the  Emperor  had  not 
then  taken  possession  of  it.  The  European  palace  at 
the  side  is  used  for  receptions  to  Europeans. 

All  officials  and  officers  hasten  directly  evening  has  set 
in  to  divest  themselves  of  their  frock-coats  or  uniforms 
and  don  the  national  costume. 

Although  the  home  does  not  exist  in  Japan  in  the 
sense  that  we  understand  the  word,  it  must  not  be 
assumed  that  all  intimacy  is  unknown  in  the  Japanese 
family.  During  the  winter  evenings,  when  the  to 
are  securely  fastened  up  and  the  stove  or  hibatchi  is 
warming  frozen  hands  almost  too  overpoweringly,  the 
little  children  with  their  parents  gather  round  the  red- 
hot  charcoal  and  listen  eagerly  to  the  stories  and  tales  of 
fairies  that  the  grandmother  relates.  Eor  the  Japanese 
folklore  abounds  in  stories  as  charming  as  the  tales  of 
Perrault. 

There  is  called  up  Momotaro,  the  young  hero  who 
came  out  of  a  fish  and  was  found  by  an  old  woman 
whilst  washing  her  clothes  in  the  river,  and  became 
rich  and  powerful  ;  the  old  man  who  made  dead  trees 
bloom,  thanks  to  the  genius  of  his  dog,  wickedly  killed 
by  a  jealous  neighbour.  There  is  the  story  telling  of  the 
mirror  of  Matsuyama,  in  which  the  young  mother,  dying, 
gives  the  mirror  to  her  daughter,  telling  her  that  she 
will  always  see  her  image  there,  and  the  young  girl  is  so 
like  her  mother  that  she  believes  she  sees  in  it  the 
picture  of  her  beloved  dead.  Yet  another  story  of  the 
fight  between  the  monkey  and  the  crab,  and  of  the 
sparrow  whose  tongue  was  slit,  and  of  the  old  man 
and  the  demons,  and  there  are  I  know  not  how  many 
more  tales  ! 


90  THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

The  grandmother  (o  ha  san)  delights  her  audience,  and 
the  httle  people  open  wide  their  eyes  and  ears  that  they 
may  the  better  take  in  these  wonderful  things.  The  old 
stories  that  have  come  from  India  and  China,  the  famous 
deeds,  the  exploits  of  Yamato  dakenomikoto  and  the 
warriors  of  remote  ages,  are  also  retailed  for  the  enter- 
tainment of  these  intimate  evening  parties,  as  well  as 
the  misdoings  of  Eeynard,  who  can  change  himself  into 
a  woman  to  cheat  men,  and  vice  versa.  The  fox  (kitsune) 
is  more  feared  than  any  other  animal  in  Japan,  probably 
owing  to  his  metamorphoses,  therefore  they  shut  the  to 
securely  up  so  that  Master  Eeynard  should  not  come  and 
work  his  wicked  tricks  in  the  house. 

When  the  age  for  marriage  arrives  (the  Japanese 
marries  young)  a  wife  must  be  found  for  the  son  and 
a  husband  for  the  daughter.  The  search  is  simplified 
because,  as  a  rule,  the  families  have  had  an  under- 
standing for  a  long  time  before.  When  agreement  has 
been  come  to,  some  of  the  friends  of  the  prospective 
bridegroom,  and  the  same  number  of  friends  of  his 
-fiancée,  are  appointed  to  make  the  necessary  prepara- 
tions and  arrange  the  ceremony.  Then  the  happy  day 
for  the  first  meeting  of  the  engaged  couple  is  fixed  upon, 
and  the  day  of  the  marriage  settled.  The  young  man 
then  sends  presents  to  his  Hancée,  in  harmony  with  the 
degree  of  his  fortune,  and  these  presents  she  offers  to  her 
parents  as  a  token  of  gratitude  before  quitting  for  ever 
their  dwelling,  where  she  has  passed  her  youth,  sur- 
rounded by  devoted  care.  The  parents  furnish  the 
trousseau  and  the  household  necessities,  as  is  also  the 
custom  in  China.  The  marriage  ceremony  is  celebrated 
either  in  the  house  or  in  a  restaurant  specially  chosen.  I 
had  the  opportunity  on  arriving  at  a  restaurant  at  Osaka 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  91 

to  be  very  genially  invited  by  the  proprietor  to  the 
marriage  of  his  daughter,  and  I  thus  took  part  in  the 
whole  ceremony.  The  lady  vfore  on  her  head  a  long 
white  veil,  and  was  accompanied  by  two  of  her  friends, 
who  conducted  her  into  the  apartment  in  which  the 
ceremony  was  to  take  place.  Her  fiancé  was  already 
there,  sitting  in  the  midst  of  his  relatives  and  friends. 

A  table  of  gold  lacquer,  magnificently  decorated,  and 
bearing  a  fir-tree,  a  flowering  plum-tree,  and  a  crane  and 
a  tortoise,  was  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  apartment. 
These  things  are  all  emblems — the  fir-tree  of  the 
strength  of  the  husband,  the  flowering  plum  of  the 
grace  of  the  wife,  the  crane  and  the  tortoise  of  a 
happy  and  long  life.  Upon  a  little  table  at  the  side 
were  placed  a  cup  and  a  bottle  of  sake. 

After  various  rites  the  friends  of  the  young  girl,  acting 
as  maids  of  honour,  conducted  the  plighted  couple  to  the 
lacquered  table,  and  presenting  to  them  the  cup,  now 
filled,  each  in  turn  drinks,  holding  hands  the  while. 

It  is  by  this  act  of  drinking  out  of  the  same  cup  that 
the  marriage  is  consecrated.  The  invited  guests  now 
arrive  with  congratulations,  then  every  one  sits  down 
and  partakes  of  the  feast. 

I  shall  always  recall  with  pleasure  this  ceremony,  to 
which  I  was  so  prettily  invited,  and  treated  in  a  way 
which  could  not  have  been  more  felicitous. 

As  will  be  understood,  there  being  at  the  present  time 
in  Japan  a  civil  state,  the  marriage  must  be  registered  at 
the  Town  Hall.  The  reverse  of  the  medal  is  the  facility 
with  which  divorce  is  obtained.  Several  new  laws  have 
been  passed  with  regard  to  it,  but  custom  is  still  more 
powerful,  and  the  total  number  of  divorces  still  reaches  a 
large  figure. 


92  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

Though  in  intimacy  and  family  life  the  Japanese  is,  as  a 
rule,  fairly  gay  and  unconstrained,  in  society  he  is  always 
reserved  and  formal.  The  Japanese  are  always  distant 
and  grave  in  their  intercourse  and  conversation,  but  at 
the  same  time  there  is  a  sort  of  fixed  smile  upon  their 
lips.  They  have  the  same  smile  even  if  in  distress 
from  the  loss  of  wife  or  child.  From  infancy  they  are 
habituated  never  to  permit  their  joy  or  grief  to  be 
apparent. 

Women  often  receive  their  friends  and  men  theirs 
about  four  or  five  in  the  afternoon  to  drink  usu  cha 
and  talk  and  smoke  pipes. 

Usu  cha  is  a  kind  of  tea  in  powder,  and  for  its  prepara- 
tion there  is  a  complete  ceremonial.  There  must  first  of 
all  be  special  earthen  cups,  which  are  generally  grey  and 
odd,  and  highly  esteemed  in  Japan.  There  is  also  indis- 
pensable a  number  of  little  implements,  each  of  which  is 
destined  for  a  special  purpose.  One  has  to  be  initiated 
into  the  way  to  take  hot  water  from  the  kettle,  and  to 
pour  it  out  in  a  particular  way  ;  and  it  is  essential  that 
you  should  receive  the  cup  from  the  hands  of  the  person 
offering  it  with  a  certain  position  of  the  hands  at  the  level 
of  the  head,  and  drink  the  contents  and  return  the  cup 
strictly  in  accordance  with  the  rites.  And  it  is  all  done 
with  great  seriousness,  without  the  faintest  trace  of  a 
smile  on  the  face.  Men  also  often  invite  one  another 
to  a  banquet  at  a  restaurant  that  is  fashionable,  where 
things  are  done  in  a  different  style  altogether.  The 
guests,  after  having  drunk  sake,  attended  by  young 
artistes,  musicians,  and  dancers,  are  begged  to  have  no 
ceremony,  and  the  evening  is  spent  merrily,  in  the 
course  of  which  the  newest  dances  and  the  most  choice 
plays  entertain  the  guests. 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  93 

Only  men  meet  in  this  convivial  way;  vv^omen  are 
never  admitted  to  these  gatherings.  Japanese  music  to 
our  ears  sounds  frightful  ;  in  their  sounds  there  is  not 
one  which  we  should  consider  either  musical  or  rhythmic  ; 
it  is  a  wailing  with  some  likeness  to  the  cries  of  many 
cats.  Meanwhile  there  are  at  the  present  time  bands  of 
musicians  playing  European  music,  but  one  feels  that 
the  execution  of  the  music  is  mechanical,  and  that  they 
neither  understand  nor  care  for  our  musical  art. 

The  Japanese  are  also  card-players,  and  they  have 
adopted  all  the  Chinese  games — cards,  dice,  chess.  They 
are  very  fond,  too,  of  fights  between  cocks  and  quails,  a 
taste  bequeathed  them  by  their  Malay  ancestors.  In 
summer  they  delight  in  picnics  in  the  country,  especially 
to  any  part  where  there  is  water  and  hiring  boats  placed 
at  the  disposal  of  the  visitors.  They  are  not  satisfied  till 
they  have  found  an  agreeable  place  in  the  shade  com- 
manding a  charming  view.  The  fete  of  Eiogoku  bashi 
at  Tokyo  gives  a  good  idea  of  their  water  entertainments. 
For  several  days  the  boats  filled  with  people  line  the 
river,  and  in  the  evening  the  fireworks  and  the  illumina- 
tions of  the  restaurants  and  houses  on  the  shore  rival  in 
brightness  the  delicate  and  elegant  lanterns  of  Gifu,  the 
light  of  which  burns  on  the  top  of  the  boats. 

After  this  sketch  of  Japanese  life  we  may  suitably 
mention  here  the  manner  in  which  a  human  being  ends 
his  career  in  the  isles  of  the  Eising  Sun.  In  the  funeral 
rites,  more  probably  than  in  anything  else,  the  ancient 
forms  are  most  rigidly  preserved.  When  a  Japanese 
dies,  his  relatives  and  friends  wash  the  body  and  clothe 
it  in  a  white  garment,  upon  which  a  priest  has  previously 
inscribed  some  sacred  characters,  generally  the  posthu- 
mous name  of  the  defunct  (in  the  Buddhist  religion  each 


94  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

of  the  dead  has  a  name  by  which  he  is  henceforth  known), 
and  he  is  then  placed  in  the  coffin.  The  coffin  in  Japan 
is  a  square  box  or  casket,  or,  rather,  the  half  of  a  casket, 
in  which  the  dead  person  is  doubled  in  such  a  way  that 
the  knees  just  touch  the  face. 

When  all  the  preparations  are  made,  and  the  family 
also  have  put  on  white  mourning,  and  their  naked  feet  in 
straw  sandals,  the  funeral  procession  begins.  It  is  led  by 
a  certain  number  of  torch-bearers,  followed  by  the  priests. 
Next  follow  the  servants  carrying  bamboo  rods,  to  which 
lanterns  and  strips  of  white  paper  embellished  with 
Buddhist  proverbs  in  Sanscrit  characters  are  affixed. 
The  coffin  follows  immediately  after,  borne  by  four  or 
six  men.  It  is  enclosed  in  a  white  receptacle,  which 
conceals  it  from  view.  Then  follow  the  friends  and 
acquaintances,  escorting  the  men  of  the  family — father, 
son,  brothers,  all  of  them,  parents,  friends,  bearers,  and 
servants  of  the  house  and  temple,  being  in  full  mourning, 
that  is,  in  white  cotton  fabric.  The  ceremony  is  greatly 
simplified  amongst  the  poor,  and  the  women  often  follow 
the  dead  to  their  last  resting-place. 

The  women  in  wealthy  and  noble  families  also  follow 
the  cortège,  clad  in  white,  but  they  keep  exclusively  to  the 
rear  and  the  extreme  end  of  the  procession.  Formerly 
they  went  in  palanquins,  nowadays  they  drive. 

At  Tokyo  I  took  part  in  the  funeral  rites  of  Prince 
Arisugawa.  His  son,  clothed  in  white,  his  feet  in 
sandals,  and  a  rod  in  his  hand,  walked  on  foot.  The 
interment  being  a  Shintoist  one,  on  reaching  the  cemetery 
the  body  was  placed  upon  a  kind  of  altar,  and  each  person 
offered  to  the  manes  of  the  prince  a  branch  of  the  sacred 
tree,  the  Sahaki. 

The  Shintoist  ceremonies  are  of  a  very  simple  kind. 


A   BUDDHIST   FUNERAL    IX    HUMBLE    LIFE. 


IN"    THE    GAKUEN    OF    AN    ANCn-;NT    BUDDHIST   TEMPLE, 


To  face  p.  94. 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  95 

With  the  Buddhists  it  is  otherwise.  The  priest  here 
plays  a  great  rôle,  and  after  having  recited  prayers  in  the 
mortuary  chamber,  he  goes  through  a  ceremonial,  finally 
reciting  more  prayers  in  the  cemetery. 

Formerly  the  cemeteries  surrounded  the  temples — as  in 
our  villages,  v^here  they  are  found  adjoining  the  churches 
— thus  every  part  of  Tokyo  has  several  cemeteries.  The 
Japanese  burn  or  bury  their  dead,  according  to  the 
Buddhist  sect  they  follow.  The  Shintoists  always  bury. 
At  a  place  on  the  outskirts  of  Tokyo  there  is  placed  at 
the  service  of  those  employing  cremation  a  crematory 
kiln  for  wealthy  persons  and  a  fir-tree  pyre  for  the  poor  ; 
when  the  corpse  is  reduced  to  ashes  they  are  collected 
into  an  urn  and  buried. 

The  tombs  are  all  the  same.  A  base  in  stone  supports 
a  small  square  column,  upon  the  four  surfaces  of  which 
are  engraved  all  sorts  of  Buddhist  maxims  and  the  post- 
humous name  of  the  deceased  person.  The  Shintoist 
poor  content  themselves  with  a  wooden  stake  (its  four 
surfaces  rough-hewn) ,  around  which  are  bamboo  rods  bear- 
ing small  paper  and  straw  flags  symbolical  of  Shintoism. 
The  tombs  are  not  neglected  ;  on  the  contrary,  they  are 
always  adorned  with  flowers,  and  in  the  month  of  July 
at  the  time  of  "  hon,'"  or  festival  of  the  dead,  the  multi- 
tude throng  into  the  cemeteries  exactly  as  we  do  on  All 
Saints'  Day.  There  is  a  superstition  that  after  the 
festival  of  "  &o»,"  the  twenty-sixth  day  of  the  eighth 
month,  the  moon  rises  above  the  horizon  in  three 
tongues  of  fire.  Consequently,  upon  this  evening  every 
true  Buddhist  goes  up  on  to  a  hill  and  remains  in  prayer 
until  the  appearance  of  the  three  tongues  of  fire.  Each, 
it  is  said,  represents  a  Buddhist  god,  who  rises  thus 
above  the  earth  and  almost  at  the  same  moment  dis- 


96  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

appears,  when  the  three  tongues  of  fire  unite  to  form  the 
moon. 

The  Japanese  who  follow  the  teaching  of  the  dis- 
sentient Buddhist  priest  Nichiren,  and  who  form  a  part 
of  the  sect  of  Hokkekio,  have  a  custom  that  is  genuinely 
and  naïvely  poetic  as  well  as  delightfully  ideal.  Every  one 
who  has  had  a  sufficiently  long  experience  of  the  roads  of 
Japan  must  have  come  across  in  the  country,  near  a  pool 
or  stream,  a  cotton  sheet  hanging  by  its  four  corners  to 
bamboo  rods  which  are  driven  into  the  ground. 

Behind  this  sheet  there  is  a  little  board  with  several 
characters,  which  are  usually,  "  Namu  miô  lio  ren  ge  kio." 
This  is,  roughly  translated,  "  Glory  to  the  lotus  of  the 
good  law."  And  in  addition  there  is  a  kind  of  wooden 
goblet  with  a  long  handle  resting  on  the  sheet.  In  the 
cavity  made  by  the  four  bamboo  poles,  flowers,  renewed 
by  a  pious  hand,  are  often  found.  At  a  first  glance  it  is 
incomprehensible  to  a  European  ;  here,  however,  is  the 
explanation  that  has  been  given  me.  Upon  the  cotton 
sheet  is  inscribed  the  name  of  the  dead  person.  The 
devout  passer-by,  having  clasped  his  hands  in  prayer  for 
a  few  instants,  takes  the  goblet  and  pours  water  over  the 
sheet,  and  he  must  wait  till  the  water  is  diffused  all  over 
the  fabric  before  pursuing  his  journey;  then  he  makes 
a  bow  of  reverence  and  continues  on  his  way.  This  little 
ceremony  is  called  Nag  are  Kanjo,  the  pi^.^  3r  of  the 
running  water. 


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CHAPTEE    VI 

I.  The  population  ;  its  density  ;  its  expansion  abroad — II.  Some  statistics 
— III.  Assessing  the  population — IV.  Towns  with  more  than  100,000 
inhabitants — V.  Emigration  to  Hokkaido  (Island  of  Yezo). 


The  population  of  Japan  increases  every  year  in  a 
manner  unknown  in  Europe,  even  in  Germany  and 
Kussia,  where  the  growth  of  the  population  is  extremely 
rapid.  It  is  often  stated  that  it  is  this  continual  increase 
which  compels  the  Japanese  to  seek  other  countries 
where  he  may  live,  the  country  being  over-populated. 
Made  in  this  unqualified  fashion  the  statement  is  not, 
I  think,  perfectly  accurate.  The  Japanese  have  still  all 
the  north  of  Honshu  and  the  Isle  of  Yezo  to  people,  and 
assuredly  these  two  portions  of  the  Empire  could  support 
thousands  of  families;  what  drives  the  Japanese  abroad 
is  less  the  need  of  new  land  than  their  spirit  of  adventure. 
In  fact,  before  the  complete  closure  of  Japan  by  leyasu, 
and  absolute  prohibition  of  all  intercourse  with  the 
foreigner,  the  Japanese  junks  sailed  all  over  the  China 
seas,  and  in  the  14th,  15th,  and  16th  centuries 
they  were  found  almost  everywhere  in  Asia,  in 
Korea,  in  Siam,  in  Annam,  in  Tonkin,  where  they 
traded,  became  ministers  and  generals,  and  in  short  were 
greatly  appreciated.     The  old  Malay  blood,  that  of  sea- 

17  97 


98 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 


pirates,  flowing  in  their  veins,  created  them  navigators 
of  the  greatest  valour  at  this  epoch.  The  edict  of  leyasu 
closing  the  sea  to  them  caused  them  to  lose  their  enthu- 
siasm for  the  sea,  but  since  the  country  has  been  thrown 
open  entirely  they  have  set  their  ships  again  afloat  and 
become  again  what  they  were  once — excellent  sailors  and 
unequalled  explorers.  They  are  to  be  seen  in  China,  in 
America,  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  in  the  Philippines,  in 
Manchuria,  in  Korea,  even  in  Peru  and  Chili. 

Whatever,  moreover,  is  the  reason  for  their  swarming 
into  the  seas  of  the  Further  East  and  Pacific,  it  is  certainly 
true  that  the  statistics  of  the  Japanese  population  go 
on  mounting  higher.  From  35,768,584  inhabitants  in 
1879,  it  rose  to  47,674,460  in  1905,  there  having  been 
42,708,264  in  1896. 


II 


The  table  below  of  the  total  population  of  the  Empire 
for  the  last  ten  years  (the  latest  census  was  in  1905,  and 
was  taken  in  the  last  Statistical  Eeport  of  the  Empire) 
gives  the  following  figures  : — 


Tear: 
1896 
1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 


Population. 

42,708,264 
43,228,863 
43,763,855 
44,260,642 
44,815,980 
45,437,032 
46,022,476 
46,732,876 
47,215,630 
47,674,460 


In  the  end  of  December,   1903   (when   the  last  table 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 


99 


appeared),  the 
way  : — 

Central  Honshu 

Northern  Honshu 

Western  Honshu 

Shikoku 

Kyushu 

Yezo 


total  population  was  distributed  in  this 


1888. 
15,331,659 
5,992,017 
9,096,416 
2,828,821 
6,103,446 

254,805 


1893. 
16,031,432 
6,316,774 
9,374,468 
2,907,280 
7,379,262 
379,097 


1898. 
16,859,998 
6,642,917 
9,825,722 
3,013,817 
6,811,246 


1903. 

17,988,546 
7,075,571 

10,396,425 
3,167,707 
7,260,910 


610,155  843,717 


In  fifteen  years  from  1888  to  1903  the  population  of 
Japan  has  increased  by  7,175,642  inhabitants,  and  from 
1903  to  1905  by  nearly  a  million  (precisely,  941,584) 
inhabitants. 

Ill 

The  population  is  unequally  distributed  over  the 
Empire,  the  most  populated  parts  being  those  forming 
Central  Honshu,  that  is,  the  entire  centre  of  the 
biggest  island,  which  Europeans  are  more  familiar  with 
under  the  name  of  Nihon  or  Nippon,  and  called  by  the 
Japanese  Honshu,  or  the  principal  land,  Nippon  and 
Nihon  having  the  native  significance  of  Japan  generally. 

The  redistribution  of  the  population  into  Kens  or  depart- 
ments on  December  31,  1903  (Statistical  Eeport  of  the 
Empire  of  Japan  for  1908),  has  resulted  as  follows  : — 


SHI 

AND    KEN. 

Honshic  (Central). 

Population. 

Shi  of  Tokyo 

...     1,668,368 

Ken  of  Kanagawa 

866,276 

„      Saitama  ... 

...     1,248,626 

„      Chiba 

...     1,329,362 

„      Ibaraki    ... 

...     1,205,231 

„      Tochigi    ... 

858,875 

„      Gumma  ... 

850,081 

„      Nagano   ... 

...     1,321,581 

100 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 


Ken  of  Yamanashi 

„  Shizuoka 

,,  Aichi 

„  Miye 

„  Gifu 

„  Shigu 

„  Fukui 

,,  Ishika-wa 

,,  Toyama   ... 


Popnlation. 

537,938 

1,294,917 

1,692,771 

1,051,054 

1,046,520 

789,608 

655,714 

806,748 

814,876 


Honshu  {North). 


Ken  of  Niigata    ... 
Pukushima 
Miyagi     ... 
Yamagata 
Akita 
Iwati 
Aomori    ... 


1,882,574 
1,145,606 
898,531 
889,510 
834,781 
761,281 
663,288 


Honshu  (West). 


Shi  of  Kyoto 
,,      Osaka 

Ken  of  Nara 

,,  Wakayama 
„  Hyogo  ... 
,,  Okayama 
,,  Hiroshima 
,,  Yamagachi 
,,  Shimane  ... 
Tottori     ... 


984,285 

1,432,982 

568,265 

721,411 

1,776,220 

1,181,204 

1,517,185 

1,082,879 

742,844 

439,200 


Ken  of  Tokushima 
,,      Kagawa    ... 
,,     Ehime 
„      Kôchi 


Shikoku. 


729,951 

730,947 

1,056,054 

660,755 


Ken  of  Nagasaki 

,,  Saga 

,,  Fukuoka 

,,  Kumamoto 

„  Oita 

,,  Miyazaki 

,,  Kagoshima 

„  Okinawa  ... 


Eyûshû. 


878,667 

666,158 

1,476,528 

1,212,187 

873,659 

490,275 

1,194,228 

468,208 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE         101 

By  these  tables  it  is  easy  to  estimate  the  precise 
manner  in  which  Japan  is  peopled  ;  since  the  census 
of  1903  the  population  has,  of  course,  still  further  in- 
creased, but  no  official  statistics  have  appeared  since  then. 
At  the  same  time  it  is  quite  accurate  to  say  that  at  the 
present  moment  (1909)  the  Japanese  population  exceeds 
50,000,000  inhabitants  (the  "  Economic  Annual  "  for  1908 
gives  49,232,822  as  the  exact  figure). 

The  departments  (Ken)  which,  with  the  Shi  (cities) 
of  Tokyo  and  Osaka,  are  the  most  densely  peopled, 
are  those  of  Saitama,  Chiba,  Ibaraki,  Gumma,  Shizuoka, 
Aichi,  Miye,  Gifu,  in  Central  Honshu;  Niigata,  Toku- 
shima,  Hyogo,  Okayama,  Hiroshima,  Yamagachi,  in 
"Western  Honshu  ;  Ehime  in  the  island  of  Shikoku  ; 
Fukuoka,  Kumamoto,  and  Kagoshima  in  the  island  of 
Kyushu. 

The  population  of  Yezo,  more  generally  called  Hokkaido 
by  the  Japanese,  comprises  435,248  men  and  408,469 
women,  making  up  the  total  of  843,717  included  in  the 
total  of  the  preceding  table.  With  regard  to  density,  we 
find  for  Central  Honshu  there  are  494  inhabitants  per 
square  mile,  in  North  Honshu  234  inhabitants  per  square 
mile,  in  West  Honshu  496  inhabitants  per  square  mile  ; 
in  Shikoku  the  number  is  445,  in  Kyushu  424  per 
square  mile  ;  for  the  island  of  Yezo  only  23  per  square 
mile. 

These  figures  yield  an  average  of  353  persons  per 
square  mile.  It  will  be  seen  then  that  in  comparison 
with  the  most  densely  populated  countries  of  Europe 
— Belgium,  for  instance — this  number  is  insignificant, 
Japan  being  capable  of  containing  a  much  larger 
population. 


102 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 


IV 

The  rural  population  is  very  dense,  and  although  in- 
dustrial activity  draws,  as  everywhere,  the  young  men 
into  the  urban  centres,  there  are  not,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
to-day  more  than  ten  towns  having  a  population  of 
100,000  souls:— 


Tokyo 
Osaka 
Kyoto 

Nagoya      .. 

Yokohama 

Kobe 

Nagasaki  .. 

Hiroshima 

Sendai 


1,818,655 
995,915 
380,568 
288,639 
326,035 
285,002 
153,293 
121,196 
100,231 


Note  that  all  these  figures  are  taken  on  December  31, 
1903  ;  in  every  case  they  would  be  increased  to-day. 


In  1907  the  immigration  figures  for  Hokkaido  were 
66,793  persons,  and  from  these  10,092  must  be  subtracted 
to  cover  those  who  have  left  the  island. 

The  native  population  of  this  part  of  the  Empire,  the 
Ainus,  number  only  about  18,000  persons,  there  being 
about  the  same  number  of  men  and  women.  They  tend 
to  disappear  entirely  before  the  Japanese  invasion,  which 
also  is  largely  contributory  to  their  gradual  disappear- 
ance by  supplying  them  with  the  pernicious  rice  alcohol. 

Apart  from  the  Ainus  of  Hokkaido,  the  population  of 
Japan  at  the  present  time  may  be  considered  homo- 
geneous. The  people  form  one  single  race  of  men, 
who  speak  the  same  tongue  and  have  the  same  customs 
and  the  same  manners.    It  is  clear  that  the  isolation 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  103 

in  which  Japan  has  been  for  more  than  two  centuries 
locked  up  in  its  islands,  with  all  migration  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  seacoast  forbidden  under  pain  of  death, 
has  powerfully  contributed  to  mingle  the  diverse  con- 
stituent elements  and  weld  them  into  one  single  people. 
Nor  is  this  the  sole  reason,  for  in  Europe  the  different 
elements — Celts,  Gauls,  and  Anglo-Saxons — which  com- 
pose Great  Britain  have  also  been  enclosed  in  islands, 
but  they  have  never  become  fused  into  union. 

What  has  undeniably  contributed  to  the  realisation 
of  race  union  in  the  islands  of  the  Eising  Sun  is  the 
existence  of  a  single  political  constitution  and  admini- 
stration for  the  whole  territory. 

The  foreign  population  settled  in  Japan  is  not  very 
large;  it  is  estimated  at  about  19,000  persons. 

The  Chinese  are  the  most  numerous,  with  a  total  of 
12,434  ;  then  come  the  English  with  about  2,000,  and 
Americans  from  the  United  States  number  1,500.  There 
are  from  500  to  600  French  and  Germans.  With  regard 
to  other  countries,  they  are  represented  by  a  varying 
number  of  people,  ranging  from  1  Greek  to  90  Italians 
and  200  Eussians. 


CHAPTEK  VII 

I.  Tokyo,  the  capital — II.  Places  to  visit — III.  Environs  of  Tokyo — 
IV.  Fuji  yama — V,  Sendai  and  the  towns  in  the  North — VI. 
Nagoya,  Kyoto,  Nara — VII.  Osaka  and  the  towns  in  the  South. 


The  capital  of  Japan,  Tokyo,  is  situated  on  the  north 
of  the  bay  of  Yedo  ;  it  has  a  circumference  of  one 
hundred  square  miles,  and  it  is  irrigated  by  the  Sumida 
or  Ogawa,  which  flows  across  the  city,  dividing  it  into 
two  parts  :  the  town,  properly  speaking,  and  the  suburbs 
of  Honjo  and  Fukagawa.  Tokyo  is  rather  a  conglomera- 
tion of  villages  round  a  castle  than  a  genuine  town, 
although  in  modern  times  it  is  becoming  more  and  more 
centralised.  The  castle  occupies  an  elevated  situation 
in  the  centre  of  the  town  on  the  west  side  ;  it  is  enclosed 
in  double  walls  and  surrounded  by  a  wide  moat.  Here 
lived  the  Shogun  or  Lieutenant-General. 

The  fire  in  1872  (April  3rd)  destroyed  everything,  and 
it  was  not  till  January,  1889,  that  a  new  palace  was 
raised  for  the  Mikado,  who  has  resided  there  ever  since. 
The  Imperial  gardens,  called  Fukiage,  are  situated  in 
the  precincts  of  the  castle.  The  visitor  can  gain  access 
to  them  by  getting  an  authorisation  from  the  Minister  of 
the  Imperial  Household.  On  the  front  from  outside  one 
can  admire  the  towers  on  different  floors  ;  they  are  quad- 

104 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE         105 

rangular,  with  roofs  that  are  Chinese  in  style,  which  have 
remained  owing  to  being  above  the  gates  at  the  entrance 
to  the  Palace. 

Between  the  castle  and  the  engirdling  walls  of  the 
town  proper  there  was  an  immense  space  occupied  by 
the  numerous  palaces  of  the  Daimyos  ;  but  nearly  all 
the  feudal  constructions  have  given  place  to  hideous 
brick  buildings  erected  by  European  architects,  and 
which  serve  as  monasteries,  barracks,  and  schools  of  all 
sorts,  &c.,  with  the  result  that  it  is  difficult  to  get  any 
conception  of  what  the  ancient  Yedo  was  in  the  time 
of  the  Shogunate.  There  remain,  however,  some  of 
the  old  buildings,  which  have  been  converted  into 
Government  offices  ;  they  are  very  long  wooden  build- 
ings, having  only  one  floor,  heavy  grey-tiled  roofs, 
and,  being  painted  black,  have  a  most  melancholy 
aspect.  Beyond  the  walls  of  the  town  the  people's  city, 
densely  populated,  spreads  itself.  All  the  trading  is  done 
here.  The  principal  street  is  of  European  construction, 
made  of  brick  ;  it  is  called  Ginza,  and  is  continued  by 
the  street  leading  to  the  bridge  of  Japan,  or  Nihon 
Bashi,  from  which  place  all  the  measurements  of  the 
Empire  are  reckoned. 

These  streets  are  exceedingly  lively,  particularly  as 
the  Ginza  Street  is  exactly  facing  the  railway  station 
of  Shimbashi.  These  two  streets  lead  to  the  park  of 
Ueno,  where  the  Imperial  Museum  is  established,  which 
is  used  for  national  and  art  exhibitions. 


II 

Amidst  places  of  interest  to  the  foreigner  may  be  cited 
the  great  Temple  of  Kewannon  at  Asakusa,  not  far  from 


106         THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

Ueno,  and  the  temples  of  Shiba,  of  which  I  have  already 
spoken.  Altogether  there  are  nearly  two  thousand 
temples  in  Tokyo,  but  few  of  them  are  worth  the 
trouble  of  a  visit.  One  of  the  most  frequented  is  the 
Temple  of  Sengakuji  at  Shinagawa,  where  are  the  tombs 
of  the  famous  forty-seven  ronins. 

The  districts  of  Hongo  and  Fukagawe  are  the  quiet 
and  pleasant  sides  of  the  capital.  They  are  united  to  the 
main  city  by  five  bridges,  Azuma  Bashi,  Omiya  Bashi, 
Eyogoku  Bashi,  0  Hashi,  and  Ita  Bashi  (Hashi,  called 
for  euphony  Bashi,  meaning  bridge). 

Tokyo  is  in  the  process  of  transformation,  and  one  can 
see  at  the  side  of  the  European  houses  built  by  the  nobles 
or  rich  bourgeoisie,  the  wooden  houses  of  the  people.  The 
electric  light  has  been  installed  in  the  finest  quarters,  the 
rest  being  lighted  by  gas  or  by  petrol  oil.  Electric  tram- 
ways and  omnibuses  run  everywhere,  yet  the  general 
character  of  the  town  is  very  depressing  and  cheerless, 
in  spite  of  the  tufts  of  greenery  that  spring  up  above  the 
low  roofs. 


Ill 

Tokyo  itself,  though  not  picturesque,  has  pleasing 
suburbs,  notably  Meguro,  Ikegami,  Kawasaki,  and 
Kanazawa,  which  is  on  the  seacoast  and  one  of  the  most 
enchanting  places  in  Japan.  It  has  a  spot  from  which 
one  can  see  eight  charming  views,  which  are  known 
under  the  name  of  Kanazawa  hak-kei. 

Kamakura,  also  on  the  seacoast,  now  simply  a 
straggling  village,  was  formerly  the  capital  chosen  by 
Yoritomo  the  Shogun  (1185),  and  still  possesses  vestiges 
of  its  ancient  splendour,  notably  the  Temple  of  Hachiman 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  107 

and  a  colossal  bronze  Buddha,  the  head  of  which  is 
capable  of  holding  a  man  measuring  6  feet  8  inches. 

Enoshima,  the  Sacred  Island,  has  some  resemblance 
to  Mont  Saint-Michel  in  France,  with  its  temples  and 
grottoes  and  caves.  It  is  a  place  of  pilgrimage  in  summer 
to  which  Europeans  often  come  to  have  a  few  days'  rest 
and  breathe  the  sea  air  and  the  smell  of  the  fir-trees. 

Yokosuka,  a  charming  little  town,  situated  on  a  land- 
locked bay  and  backed  by  green  hills,  is  notable  for  having 
the  first  Government  dockyard,  which  the  Japanese  built 
with  the  help  of  French  engineers.  At  the  present  time 
it  is  one  of  the  most  important  arsenals,  and  the  greatest 
activity  prevails.  War  vessels  are  repaired  and  even  con- 
structed there,  though  it  is  difficult  to  believe,  in  view  of 
surroundings  so  pleasing  and  a  sea  so  calm,  that  there  is 
concealed  there  at  the  base  of  the  gulf  an  arsenal  for  the 
manufacture  of  destroyers. 

Hakone,  which  is  situated  on  a  very  clear  lake  in  the 
midst  of  mountains,  is  one  of  the  summer  resorts  most 
frequented  by  the  Europeans  of  Tokyo  and  Yokohama. 
It  is  reached  by  railway  to  Kozu,  and  thence  by  an  old- 
fashioned  tramway  drawn  by  a  horse  to  the  foot  of  the 
hill  of  Miyanoshita.  This  latter  seaside  village  is  also 
much  frequented,  and  there  is  a  delightful  European  hotel 
there,  provided  with  every  kind  of  comfort  conceivable  ; 
from  thence  one  pushes  on  to  Yumoto  with  its  sul- 
phurous springs,  and  from  there  Hakone  is  reached. 
This  little  town  was  formerly  the  entrance  to  Kwanto 
(hereditary  possession  of  the  Shogun),  and  the  western 
passes  of  Hakone,  commanding  the  Kyoto  road,  were 
strictly  guarded.  No  one  crossed  them  without  a  pass- 
port. Hakone  is  one  of  the  most  lovely  places  that  a 
traveller  can  visit  who  has  not  time  to  penetrate  far  into 


108  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

the  interior.  The  scenery  is  beautiful.  Great  crypto- 
merias  shade  the  shores  of  the  lake,  where  the  Emperor 
has  a  summer  palace,  and  there  are  enchanting  flowers 
and  plants  in  this  district. 

Atami  (the  hot  sea),  which  is  reached  by  crossing  the 
mountains  of  Hakone  seawards,  is  a  resort  to  which  the 
Japanese  come  for  rest  and  quiet.  A  warm  intermittent 
geyser  is  there,  greatly  patronised  by  crowds  of  bathers. 

IV 

One  of  the  most  delightful  excursions  a  little  way  out 
from  Tokyo  is  to  Fuji  yama,  which  is  reached  by  climbing 
the  hill  of  Otome-toge,  above  Hakone.  The  climb  up  the 
mountain  is  not  excessively  arduous,  and  it  affords  plenty 
of  novelty  if  undertaken  in  the  month  of  August,  when 
all  the  Japanese  pilgrims  are  bent  on  the  same  object. 
From  the  summit  of  the  old  volcano  a  glorious  view  is 
obtainable,  though  frequently,  owing  to  mists,  nothing 
can  be  seen.  At  this  time  of  the  year  the  humidity  of 
the  atmosphere  in  Japan  is  so  great  that  it  is  rare  to 
have  a  perfectly  clear  sky. 

Nikkô. — Correctly  speaking,  Nikko  is  not  a  town,  but 
an  assemblage  of  temples  and  shrines  with  a  background 
of  beautiful  mountains  and  streams.  Bound  these  temples 
a  little  village  grew,  which,  in  consequence  of  the  arrival 
of  Europeans  became  bigger,  and  before  long  houses  and 
hotels  were  erected.  Kesident  foreigners  have  gradually 
grown  into  the  habit  of  passing  their  summers  there,  and 
at  the  present  time  comfortable  hotels  in  the  European 
style  are  to  be  found.  All  the  houses  and  streets  are  lighted 
by  electricity,  but  it  has  to  be  admitted  that  owing  to 
this  Western  invasion  Nikkô  has  lost  most  of  its  charm. 


THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE  109 

However  this  may  be,  the  traveller  should  not  fail  to  go 
there  and  visit  the  shrines  and  temples  of  leyasu  and  of 
lemitsu,  the  cascades  of  Kirifuri  and  Urami,  and  the 
beautiful  mountains  and  lake  of  Chuzenji.  These  form 
so  striking  an  ensemble  that  the  Japanese  have  a  proverb 
about  it  :  "Nikkô  mi  na  kereba  kekko  to  yu  na"  ("  If  you 
have  not  seen  Nikkô  you  cannot  use  the  word  '  marvel- 
lous '  ").  Beyond  Nikkô,  and  in  the  same  region  of 
mountains,  there  are  excursions  to  Ikao,  Ashio,  and 
Asama  yama,  the  latter  a  still  active  volcano,  constantly 
ejecting  ashes  ;  the  ascent,  however,  is  easy. 

V 

Sendai. — There  is  nothing  particularly  interesting  in 
this  town,  and  it  is  only  mentioned  because  the  expedi- 
tion to  the  bay  of  Matsushima,  considered  one  of  the 
wonders  of  Japan,  is  made  from  Sendai.  Matsushima 
consists  of  a  host  of  green  islands  dotted  with  pine-trees 
strewing  an  open  bay  ;  elegant  wood  bridges  here  and 
there  unite  two  islets,  and  on  the  spots  most  favoured  by 
the  Japanese  tea-houses  have  been  built.  The  marvels 
of  nature  are  thus  heightened  by  the  ingenuity  of 
Japanese  taste,  and  combine  to  present  to  the  eye  a 
most  ravishing  prospect. 

Niigata  is  a  dead  city,  though  one  of  the  first  ports 
open  to  Europeans.  The  port  is  not,  however,  used, 
being  very  dangerous,  and  necessitating  anchorage  in 
the  roadstead  outside.  The  entire  coast  is  dangerous, 
especially  during  the  north-east  monsoon. 

Hakodate. — One  of  the  ports  formerly  open  to  foreigners, 
which  remains  so,  and  the  first  town  built  by  the  Japanese 
in  the  island  of  Yezo.  It  has  nearly  sixty  thousand 
inhabitants,  but  presents  no  feature  of  any  interest. 


110         THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

VI 

Nagoya. — After  the  three  shi,  Tokyo,  Kyoto,  and 
Osaka,  this  is  the  third  Japanese  city.  It  is  not  on 
the  seacoast,  but  reached  either  by  landing  at  Atsuta  no 
miya — in  reahty  a  suburb,  for  without  leaving  its  line  of 
houses  one  gets  to  Nagoya — or  by  rail  from  Tokyo,  from 
which  it  is  a  twelve  hours'  journey.  Nagoya  is  one  of  the 
commercial  and  industrial  cities  of  Japan.  Within  its 
area  has  been  preserved  the  most  beautiful  of  the  old 
feudal  castles  built  in  1615  by  the  celebrated  Katô  Kiyo- 
masa.  Under  the  present  régime  it  is  the  headquarters 
of  the  chief  of  the  Third  Infantry  Division.  There  are 
also  several  noteworthy  temples  :  Asahi  jimmei  sha  ; 
Sakura  Temmangui  ;  Da  Shu  Kwan  on  ;  Chô  fukuji. 

Kyoto. — From  the  historic  point  of  view  Kyoto  is  the 
most  celebrated  town  of  Japan,  though  its  population  is 
not  so  large  as  that  of  Tokyo  and  Osaka.  Its  name  sig- 
nifies "the  capital."  For  more  than  a  thousand  years  it 
has  been  the  residence  of  the  Emperors.  Kyoto  is 
situated  162  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  near  the 
centre  of  the  province  of  Yamashiro,  at  the  northern 
extremity  of  a  fertile  plain,  which  is  joined  on  the  south 
side  to  the  great  plain  of  the  Osaka  Bay.  On  three  sides 
it  is  girdled  by  hills  clothed  with  trees.  The  highest,  on 
the  west  side,  is  Atago;  on  the  north  is  Kuruma,  and  on 
the  north-east  Hiei-zan;  on  the  east  still  smaller  hills 
separate  it  from  Lake  Biwa.  Upon  the  hills  extraordi- 
nary places  and  temples  are  to  be  found.  From  the 
northern  hills  three  streams  flow,  which  unite  and  form 
the  Kamogawa,  a  small  river  irrigating  the  eastern  part 
of  the  town.  More  often,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  Kamo- 
gawa irrigates  nothing  at  all,  its  bed  being  dry,  whilst  it 


THE   JAPANESE    EMPIRE  111 

has  the  appearance  of  a  wide  bed  of  pebbly  sand,  with 
here  and  there  a  few  sunken  depressions  filled  with  water. 
But  during  the  summer  rains  the  Kamogawa  has  violent 
floods,  and,  overflowing  the  town  and  country,  causes 
great  destruction.  One  of  the  old  Emperors  was  in  the 
habit  of  saying  :  "  There  are  three  things  of  which,  as 
yet,  I  have  found  no  means  of  making  myself  master  ; 
throwing  the  dice,  restraining  the  turbulent  monks  of 
Hiei-zan,  and  regulating  the  Kamogawa."  Two  canals 
communicating  with  the  Kamogawa  water  the  other 
parts  of  the  town.  It  is  divided  into  administrative 
divisions,  Kami  Kio  Ku,  or  the  upper  city,  and  Shimo  Kiô 
Ku,  or  lower  city  (southern  part). 

The  population  is  much  diminished,  and  very  different 
from  what  it  was  in  feudal  times,  especially  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  when  the  Court  resided  there.  The  founding  of 
Yedo  in  the  sixteenth  century  and  the  ascending  autho- 
rity of  the  Shogun  had  already  struck  a  blow  at  Kyoto, 
and  in  1868,  when  the  Emperor  fixed  his  residence  at 
Yedo  (Tokyo),  he  drew  with  him  a  large  part  of  the 
population.  Kyoto  may  be  considered  to  have  to-day 
300,000  inhabitants.  The  climate  is  healthy  and  usually 
mild,  though  rather  hot  in  summer.  The  mean  tem- 
perature is  about  14°  C,  the  maximum  being  36°  and 
the  minimum  11°.  August  is  the  hottest  month  and 
January  the  coldest.  There  is  a  suflicient  degree  of 
atmospheric  moisture,  the  proportion  being  77  per  cent. 
There  is   an  abundant  rainfall  in  July  and  August. 

It  was  not  till  794  that  Kyoto  became  the  permanent 
capital  and  residence  of  the  Emperors,  who  prior  to  this 
epoch  never  lived  in  the  same  city  as  their  predecessors. 

In  1868,  when  Tokyo  (Jedo)  became  the  capital  of  the 
restored  Empire,  Kyoto  was  governed  by  a  prefect  (fu). 


112  THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 

In  1888,  in  conformity  with  the  new  law  of  municipal 
government,  Kyoto,  like  Tokyo  and  Osaka,  was  under 
the  administration  of  a  municipality,  with  a  mayor,  a 
deputy  mayor,  and  nine  councillors  or  deputies.  The 
Municipal  Council  consisted  of  forty-two  members. 
Kyoto  has  now  lost  all  its  grandeur,  but  it  has  always 
remained  the  Sacred  City,  the  ancient  residence  of  the 
Emperors,  and  artistically  it  is  of  great  interest. 

The  inhabitants  of  Kyoto  exhibit  no  essential  differ- 
ence from  those  of  other  parts  of  Japan,  except  that 
fashion  is  more  elegant  there,  the  style  of  coiffure  worn 
by  the  women  more  individual  and  graceful,  manners 
and  habits  are  more  refined,  and  the  language  more 
polished. 

Kyoto  should  be  given  the  preference  for  a  sojourn 
by  any  one  who  is  studying  the  Japanese  civilisation  and 
art;  and,  indeed,  after  being  there  some  time  one  is 
tempted  never  to  leave  it. 

Besides  the  temples  I  enumerated  above,  the  Imperial 
Palace  (Nishi  Maru)  should  be  visited.  In  the  neigh- 
bourhood there  are  two  celebrated  places  :  Nara,  with  its 
parks  and  its  immense  Buddha,  and  the  rapids  of 
Arashi  yama. 

VII 

Osaka  is  the  leading  town  of  modern  Japan  from  the 
commercial  and  industrial  standpoint  ;  it  is  entirely 
Japanese,  Europeans  residing  as  a  rule  at  Kobe.  The 
town  is  well  built  and  has  regular  streets,  which  are  very 
clean  and  full  of  life.  It  is  a  most  progressive  town, 
with  a  "go-ahead"  quality  that  is  quite  American,  and 
it  is  extremely  interesting  to  the  foreign  visitor.     It  is 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  113 

situated  in  the  province  of  Settsu,  and  stands  on  the 
banks  of  the  Ujigawa,  about  six  and  a  quarter  miles  from 
the  sea.     The  river  is  only  navigable  for  small  boats. 

The  most  interesting  of  the  monuments,  a  relic  of 
ancient  days,  is  the  castle  built  by  Toyotomi  Hideyoshi. 
As  one  examines  the  square  stones,  fitting  perfectly  one 
upon  the  other,  the  question  arises  how,  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  in  a  country  where  there  was  no  other  agency 
but  that  of  human  strength,  it  was  possible  to  erect  a 
fortress  of  this  kind. 

At  Osaka  is  also  the  Imperial  Mint,  where  all  the 
pieces  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper  are  stamped.  Paper 
money  is  manufactured  at  Tokyo.  But,  above  every- 
thing, Osaka  is  interesting  commercially,  and  I  shall 
return  to  this  town  in  the  chapter  dealing  with  the 
commerce  and  industries  of  Japan. 

Kobe,  Yokohama,  Nagasaki. — These  three  towns  are 
in  no  way  typically  Japanese.  I  have  elsewhere  had 
occasion  to  refer  to  the  navigation. 

Hiroshima  is  in  the  Inner  Sea,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Otagawa.  Its  situation  at  the  foot  of  the  bay,  opposite 
a  host  of  islands  (one  of  which,  Itsuku  shima,  is  very 
celebrated)  renders  it  interesting  and  pleasant  to  visit. 
During  the  two  wars  which  Japan  sustained  in  Man- 
churia it  was  notable  for  the  presence  of  the  Chief  of  the 
Staff  of  the  Japanese  Army,  who  twice  fixed  his  residence 
there.  Consequently,  the  Emperor  himself  arrived 
there,  and  directed  thence  the  supreme  command 
{pro  forma). 

Kumamoto,  in  the  province  of  Higo,  island  of  Kyushu, 
possesses  a  strong  old  castle,  famous  for  the  victory  of 
General  Tani  over  the  rebellious  troops  of  Saigo  in  1877. 

Kagoshima,  on  the  island  of  Kyûshû,  at  the  southern 

8 


114  THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

extremity  of  the  province  of  Satsuma,  is  visited  by  few 
foreigners,  owing  to  its  distance  from  the  centres  of 
activity  of  Nippon,  constituted  by  Tokyo,  Kyoto,  and 
Osaka.  Nevertheless  it  is  interesting,  and  the  volcano 
of  Sakurajima  rising  opposite  on  the  island  of  the  same 
name  is  worthy  of  ascension. 

In  conclusion,  these  Japanese  towns  should  not  be 
visited  with  the  expectation  of  finding  any  monuments 
with  the  exception  of  the  temples — or  in  the  same  spirit 
that  one  explores  European  or  American  towns  ;  in  fact, 
when  one  has  become  familiar  with  Kyoto,  one  has  seen 
the  entire  art  and  architecture  of  Japan.  "What,  on  the 
other  hand,  may  justly  call  forth  our  admiration,  are  the 
variety  of  the  scenery  and  the  beauty  of  nature  in 
Japan. 


CHAPTER    VIII 

I.  Weights  and  measures— II.  Currency— III.  Post  Offices— IV.  Telegraphy 
— V.  Postal,  telegraphic  and  telephonic  services,  December  31,  1907 — 
VI.  National  education— VII.  The  Press:  daily  papers  and  reviews 
— VIII.  Courts  and  tribunals. 


Befoee  examining  matters  that  have  an  economic  and 
statistical  character,  it  will  be  best  for  me  to  give  my 
readers  some  information  upon  the  weights  and  measures 
and  currency  that  are  prevalent  in  the  Empire  of  the 
Eising  Sun.  With  this  object  I  give  here  the  com- 
parative tables  of  the  Japanese,  French,  and  English 
systems  : — 

LENGTH    MEASURES. 


Japanese. 

French. 

English. 

Iri 

..    3,927  mètres 

2J  miles 

Ichô 

109  mètres 

358  feet 

1  ken 

1-81  mètre 

1-88  yard 

Ijô 

3-03  mètres 

301  yards  (10  feet) 

1  shaku 

303  décimètres     .. 

11-93  inches  (1  foot) 

1  sun 

3*03  centimètres    .. 

1-17  inch 

Ibu 

3*03  millimètres    .. 
LAND    MEASURI 

1-43  line 
]S. 

Japanese. 

French. 

English. 

1  ri  square 

...     15  kil.  423  sq.  mètres  ... 

6  sq.  miles 

1  chô  squar 

e      99  ares  17  centiares    ... 

2|  acres 

1  tan 

9  ares  91  centiares     .. 

0-24  acre 

1  tsubo 

3  mq.  30  cq. 

4  sq.  yards 

116 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 


MEASUEES    OP    CAPACITY— LIQUID. 


Japanese. 

French. 

English. 

1  koku 

...     1  hectol.  80  litres 

..     39-70  gallons 

Ito 

...     1  décal.  80  litres 

..      3-97  gaUons 

1  sho 

...     1  litre  80  cl. 

1-58  quart 

Igo 

...     outre  80  dec. 

..       1-27  gill 

N.B. — I  have  not  taken  into  account  the  fractional  decimals. 

MEASURES    OP    CAPACITY— DRY. 

Japanese. 

French: 

English. 

1  koku 

...     1  hectol.  80  litres 

..     4-96  bushels 

Ito 

...     1  décal.  80  litres 

..     1-98  peck 

1  sho 

...     1  litre  80  cl. 

..     0-19  peck 

Igo 

...    0  litre  80  dec. 

WEIGHTS. 

..    0'019  peck 

Japanese. 

French. 

English: 

1  kwan 

...     3-75  kilog. 

,..     8J  lb.  avoirdupois, 
or  1004  lb.  troy 

Ikin 

...     6-900  hectog. 

...     IJ  lb.  avoirdupois, 
or  1-60  lb.  troy 

1  momme 

...    3-75  grammes 

,..     2-11  drams, 

or  2-41  dwts. 

Japan  is  a  country  with  a  gold  currency.  The 
monetary  unit  is  the  yen,  at  present  worth  2' 55 
francs,  or  about  two  shillings  in  English  money. 
Its  exchange  value  is  sometimes  2*60  francs  or  2'65 
francs  (a  little  above  two  shillings).  Nevertheless  gold 
is  never  seen  in  the  country,  gold  being  used  to  pay  the 
interest  on  the  debt  and  the  loans  of  Government  to 
foreign  countries.  Equally  seldom  is  seen  the  money 
yen,  the  currency  being  paper,  in  pieces  worth  1,  5,  10, 
25,  50,  10,000  yen,  and  also  50  and  20  sen.  The  smaller 
coins,  however,  are  fairly  abundant. 

1  yen  =  100  sen  =  2-55  francs  (about  two  shillings) 
1  sen  =  10  rin 
1  rin  =  10  mon 

The  rin,  like  the  French  centime,  is  still  in  use;  it 
is  also  struck  in  copper.     The  mon  is  an  old  piece  of 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  117 

Chinese  money  (sapèque)  which  is  no  longer  actually 
used,  but  still  exists  in  the  current  language  of  certain 
provincial  dialects. 

II 

The  5-sen  nickel  piece  still  exists. 

Ill 

The  postal  service  was  formerly  carried  on  by  the 
French,  English,  and  American  services  established  at 
Yokohama  and  in  the  other  open  ports.  The  first  postal 
service  was  organised  by  the  Imperial  Government  in 
1871  between  the  large  towns  of  the  Empire,  and  six 
years  later,  in  1877,  Japan  took  part  in  the  Universal 
Postal  Union  ;  but  in  spite  of  this  France  and  England 
maintained  their  own  special  offices  down  to  1879,  at 
which  period  they  were  definitely  given  up. 

At  the  present  time  the  postal  service  of  Japan  is 
carried  out  in  the  same  way  prevailing  in  all  the  other 
countries  of  the  world — that  is,  very  thoroughly  and  with 
great  exactness. 

Local  Taxes. 

Letters        3  sen  for  4  momme  *  or  fraction 

Letter-cards           ...        3  sen  for  i  momme  or  fraction 
Post-cards 1  sen  for  J  momme 

For  journals,  magazines,  books,  photographs,  com- 
mercial documents,  pictures,  samples,  MSS.,  cards,  &c., 
the  charge  is  2  sen  for  30  momme.  For  grain  and 
agricultural  produce  the  charge  is  1  sen  for  30  momme 
or  any  fraction.  There  exists  in  Japan  a  system  known 
as  Eapid  Distribution  for  certain  specified  articles  and 

•  See  table. 


118  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

articles  with  a  stated  value.  This  distribution  can  be 
secured  by  the  payment  of  20  sen  for  an  article  when 
the  address  is  within  a  twenty  ri  *  radius  of  the  post- 
office.  Beyond  this  distance  of  twenty  ri  a  payment  of 
15  sen  t  per  ri  or  a  fraction  is  demanded.  If  the  article 
to  be  delivered  is  addressed  to  a  person  on  board  a  ship, 
payment  from  the  ship  is  exacted  in  addition.  Charge  ; 
7  sen  each  article. 

With  regard  to  the  insurance  of  jewels  and  gold  and 
silver  articles  and  precious  stones,  15  sen  is  charged  if  the 
declared  value  does  not  exceed  10  yen;  beyond  10  yen 
5  sen  is  charged  for  each  10  yen  or  additional  part  of 
same. 

Local  Pakcel  Posts. — For  the  interior  of  Japan  up  to 
1,600  momme  |  only  (1  lb.  avoir.  =  120  momme)  ;  for 
Formosa  and  Karafuto  (SaghaHen)  to  1,500  momme,  the 
charges  being  36  and  54  sen  respectively. 

For  Japan. 

Up  to    200  momme 8  sen 

400        „      12  „ 

600       , 16  „ 

800        ,,       20  „ 

1,000        , 24  „ 

1,200        28  „ 

1,400        „       32  „ 

1,600        36  „ 


For  Formosa  and  Saghalien, 

Up  to    200  momme 80  sen 

,,       400 
„       600 


800 
1,200 
1,500 


35 
40 
50 
60 
70 


Only  insured  packets  or  those  whose  value  is  declared 
are  accepted  for  the  two  latter  countries. 

*  1  ri  =  rather  less  than  2J  miles.  f  See  table.  J  Ibid. 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE 


119 


All   the   Japanese   regulations    are   applicable   to  the 
Japanese  ports  in  Korea  and  China. 


Post  Office  Order  Charges. 
charge  of   6  sen 


For  Telegraphed  Orders. 


For  10 

yen 

,,  20 

>) 

„  30 

)> 

„  40 

1) 

„  50 

11 

For  10 

yen   . 

„  20 

)) 

,,  30 

)) 

..  40 

)> 

„  50 

)» 

>> 

10 

n 

15 

>> 

18 
22 

" 

charge 

of  30 

sen 

,, 

35 

11 

»> 

40 
45 
50 

>> 

The  maximum  sum  which  can  be  sent  in  both  ways 
is  60  yen. 

For  Foreigners. — Letters  weighing  20  grammes,  a  little 
less  than  f  oz.  (avoirdupois),  or  any  part  of  same,  are 
charged  10  sen,  and  6  sen  for  each  additional  gramme  or 
additional  part. 

Post-cards  cost  4  sen  ;  printed  matter  2  sen  =  If  oz. 

Commercial  Documents. — For  the  first  If  oz.  10  sen, 
and  2  sen  for  each  additional  If  oz.  or  part. 

Samples. — For  50  grammes  (If  oz.)  4  sen,  and  2  sen 
for  each  additional  If  oz.  or  part. 

Begistration. — 10  sen. 

Special  Distribution. — Ordinary  post,  12  sen  and  20  sen 
for  parcel  post.     On  reception  charge  of  5  sen. 

Printed  matter  and  commercial  papers  must  be  2  kilogs. 
(about  4J  lb.)  in  weight,  45  centimètres  (17  in.)  in 
dimension. 

Kolls  must  be  75  centimètres  (4  in.  about)  in  length, 
and  10  centimètres  {4^  in.)  in  diameter. 

Samples  must  be  about  12^  oz.  in  weight  ;  in  dimen- 


120  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

sions    30    centimètres    (11|    in.)    long;    20    centimètres 
(about  5^  in.)  wide  ;  20  centimètres  (about  8  in.)  deep. 

Eolls  must  be  30  centimètres  (11^  in.)  long,  and  15 
centimètres  (5f  in.)  in  diameter. 

Postal  packets  are  accepted  for  all  the  countries  com- 
prised in  the  Postal  Union  with  a  maximum  weight  of 
1,333  momme  ;  *  and  at  a  charge  varying  from  1  yen 
50  sen  to  2  yen  50  sen. 

The  Japanese  Post  Office  also  accepts  post-office  orders 
for  the  whole  of  Europe,  the  United  States,  and  the 
principal  European  possessions,  the  maximum  amount 
for  the  European  Continent  being  1,000  francs  (=  £4:0), 
and  for  the  United  States  and  Canada  100  dollars 
(£20,  rather  over).     Charge,  1  sen  per  50  francs  (£2). 

The  postal  service  in  Japan  is  admirably  carried  out. 
One  never  loses  a  letter.  If  you  have  changed  your 
address  five  or  six  times  the  letter  will  follow  you  with 
accuracy,  bearing  five  or  six  little  strips  of  paper  whereon 
the  postman  has  each  time  recorded  your  change  of 
address.  In  this  service  this  meticulous  administration 
triumphs,  and  it  must  be  admitted  that  there  is  no  other 
postal  service  so  reliable  for  the  despatch  of  letters  as 
the  Japanese.  Probably  a  certain  description  of  letters 
is  submitted  to  delay  in  transmission,  but  this  does  not 
come  within  our  present  province.  Certain  articles  are 
prohibited  in  Japan,  and  are  not  admitted  for  postal 
transmission. 

Opium  and  everything  ministering  to  the  use  of  opium, 
morphine,  and  the  constituents  of  opium,  are  absolutely 
interdicted.  Printed  matter  and  documents  of  any  kind 
having  an  immoral  character,  gold  or  silver  pieces, 
precious  stones,  jewels,  and  other  similar  articles  of  value, 

•  See  table. 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE 


121 


and  packages  of  post-cards  are  not  accepted  for  postal 
transmission. 

IV 

Telegraphic  communication  extends  to-day  to  every 
part  of  Japan,  and  the  foreigner  travelling  in  the  country 
need  not  find  himself  isolated  at  any  spot.  The  principal 
European  languages  may  be  employed,  though,  as  might 
be  expected,  English  is  the  language  most  generally  in  use. 

Local  charges  for  a  telegram  in  Japanese  (Kana,  or 
alphabetical)  20  sen  is  charged  for  the  first  fifteen 
letters,  and  15  sen  for  each  five  letters,  or  additional 
fraction  of  same  (for  telegrams  despatched  to  the  same 
town  the  charge  is  reduced  to  10  sen  and  3  sen  respec- 
tively). For  telegrams  in  European  letters  the  charge  is 
25  sen  for  the  first  five  words,  with  a  minimum  cost  of 
25  sen,  and  5  sen  for  each  extra  word  (for  the  same  town 
the  charge  is  reduced  to  15  sen  and  3  sen  respectively). 
The  length  of  a  word  is  limited  to  fifteen  characters  ; 
if  there  are  sixteen  it  is  reckoned  as  two  words.  A  group 
of  five  figures  is  equivalent  to  a  word. 

In  code  languages  ten  figures  are  equivalent  to  one 
word.  A  special  telegram  has  to  pay  three  times  the 
ordinary  amount. 

International  Charges. 


Yen. 

Sen. 

Yen. 

Sen. 

Amoy 

0 

78 

Pekin 

0 

96 

Annam 

2 

10 

Souchou 

0 

96 

Canton 

1 

04 

Wuhu 

0 

96 

Ceylon 

2 

06 

Siam 

2 

04 

Chifoo 

0 

96 

Shanghai     .. 

0 

48 

Yang-tse-Kiang 

0 

96 

The  Indies . . 

2 

02 

Hang-chow  ... 

0 

96 

Korea 

0 

30 

Hankow 

0 

96 

Europe 

2 

42 

Newchwang 

0 

96 

Russia 

1 

40 

Ning-po 

0 

96 

122  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

The  United  States  charge  ranges  from  1  yen  60  sen 
to  2  yen  80  sen,  according  to  the  town.  For  South 
America  the  tariffs  are  higher,  and  vary  between  5  yen  10 
for  the  Argentine  Republic,  and  5  yen  90  for  Peru. 

V 

A  few  figures  will  reveal  the  situation  existing  to-day 
in  Japan  with  regard  to  the  post-of&ce,  telegraphic,  and 
telephonic  services  : — 

On  December  31,  1907,  there  existed  in  Honshu  4,698 
post-offices  ;  at  Shikoku,  391  ;  at  Kyushu,  989  ;  at  Yezo, 
345  ;  there  being  in  all  6,423  offices,  with  54,698  public 
and  private  post-boxes  ;  676  telegraph  offices  ;  4  ordinary 
telephone  offices  ;  and  159  automatic  telephone  stations. 
During  the  fiscal  year  1906-1907  there  were  despatched: — 


Letters 

Post-cards       

Newspapers  and  Pamphlets 

Books  ... 

Documents,  Proofs,  &c. 

Samples  and  Seeds 

Exempted  Articles    ... 
Parcels 


289,018,836 

677,189,063 

175,566,958 

14,914,868 

8,235,025 

4,863,018 

61,344,088 

15,115,872 


During  the  same  period,  1906-1907,  there  were  de- 
livered 13,704,148  local  orders,  and  12,911  international 
orders  ;  there  have  been  despatched  vdthin  the  Empire 
23,498,234  telegrams  and  644,434  international  telegrams. 
The  telephone  numbers  about  37,000  subscribers.  This 
latter  service  is  the  least  developed,  but  when  one  con- 
siders the  elementary  condition  of  the  telephone  in  France, 
one  can  hardly  criticise  Japan  for  its  backwardness  in 
this  kind  of  communication. 

VI 

It  is  thought  proper  amongst  people  who  pride  them- 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  123 

selves  on  the  extent  of  their  knowledge,  and  who  never- 
theless, speaking  generally,  have  but  a  very  limited 
knowledge,  to  state  that  the  illiterate  person  is  unknown 
in  Japan.  It  was  the  same  sort  of  public  which  after 
1870  stated  that  the  prussian  elementary  schoolmaster 
had  beaten  the  French  nation  !  In  these  latter  days  the 
Press  has  extolled  Japanese  instructors,  their  methods, 
&c.  Consequently,  one  has  to  demolish  all  these  ideas 
that  have  been  invented  or  issued  forth — how,  one  does 
not  know — from  minds  uninformed  or  ill-informed.  At 
the  census  of  1908  there  existed,  in  round  figures, 
55,000  conscripts  who  scarcely  knew  how  to  read  or 
write,  and  30,000  who  could  neither  read  nor  write.  And 
it  is  Central  Japan,  the  central  portion  or  Honshu, 
which  furnishes  the  larger  part  of  them.  This  is  the 
exact  truth.  It  does  not  follow  that  Japan  neglects 
the  national  education.  Very  far  from  this.  It  is 
perfectly  certain  that  fifteen  years  ago  the  proportion 
of  unlettered  persons  was  considerably  higher  than  at 
the  present  time,  the  Government  of  the  Mikado 
having  made  liberal  requisitions  with  the  view  of 
securing  elementary  education  for  every  Japanese  child. 
Every  village  has  its  school  to-day. 

With  regard  to  higher  education,  Japan  possesses  two 
universities — one  at  Tokyo,  the  other  at  Kyoto.  In 
these,  as  in  all  the  European  universities,  instruction 
is  given  in  letters,  the  sciences,  and  the  arts.  Europeans 
were  the  first  to  instruct  the  Japanese  in  the  various 
branches  of  human  science  :  the  German  taught  the 
science  of  medicine  ;  the  French  civil  and  criminal  law  ; 
the  German  commercial  science  ;  whilst  the  English 
and  the  Americans  initiated  them  into  the  mathemati- 
cal and  physical  sciences. 


124  THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 

Now  all  the  teaching  has  passed  into  native  hands, 
though  there  are  still  Europeans  to  be  found  here  and 
there,  but  they  are  rather  in  the  capacity  of  advisers  in 
matters  of  difficulty. 

There  are  the  higher  normal  schools  at  Tokyo  and 
Hiroshima  ;  the  commercial  schools  at  Tokyo,  Kobe, 
and  Nagasaki  ;  the  schools  for  arts  and  trades  at  Kyoto, 
Osaka,  Nagoya,  and  Kumamoto  ;  schools  for  foreign 
languages  at  Tokyo,  employing  twelve  foreign  pro- 
fessors ;  the  school  of  fine  art  at  Tokyo  ;  the  school 
for  the  blind  and  the  deaf-mutes  at  Tokyo  ;  and,  finally, 
the  higher-grade  schools  called  kotogakko,  corresponding 
to  the  French  Lycées.  All  these  schools  are  maintained 
by  the  State,  but  independent  of  it  there  exist  a  con- 
siderable number  of  private  schools  where  law,  political, 
and  administrative  service  are  taught.  The  instruction  is 
permitted,  under  Government  inspection.  There  are  thus 
three  French  schools  under  the  direction  of  the  Marianite 
Brothers,  which  are  highly  prosperous,  at  Tokyo.  They 
have  1,500  pupils  at  Yokohama,  and  at  Nagasaki  500. 
The  Japanese  much  appreciate  their  zeal,  and  highly 
placed  persons  have  no  hesitation  in  sending  them 
their  sons.  The  Jesuits  themselves  will  shortly  establish 
a  university  at  Tokyo,  with  the  authorisation  of  the 
Mikado's  Government. 

The  Japanese  women  belonging  to  the  aristocratic 
class  or  to  the  wealthy  bourgeoisie  is  beginning  to  com- 
pete with  the  stronger  sex  in  the  schools,  and  to  profit 
greatly  from  the  scientific  and  artistic  institutions  now 
open  to  them.  Numerous  museums,  botanical  gardens, 
schools  of  agriculture,  &c.,  have  been  established  to 
complete  the  theoretical  education.  In  particular,  there 
are  very  fine  commercial  museums  at  Tokyo  and  Osaka. 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  125 

Numberless  societies  have  been  founded  :  the  Geographi- 
cal, Society  of  Japanese  Antiquities,  others  for  Maritime 
industries,  and  Agriculture,  &c.  It  would  take  too  long 
to  enumerate  all  of  them  ;  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that 
such  societies  are  as  numerous  in  Japan  as  they  are  in 
Europe,  and  perhaps  even  more  so.  For  the  Japanese 
form  societies  à  propos  everything  and  nothing. 

VII 

The  Press  is  not  exactly  free  in  Japan  ;  strict  regula- 
tions maintain  it  in  the  right  path — the  path  of  approval 
of  the  powers  that  be.  Some  audacious  critics,  however, 
criticise  the  Government  itself,  but  in  so  doing  are  very 
careful  to  acquit  from  their  criticism  the  Emperor  and 
the  Imperial  family,  and  place  this  on  the  Ministers  and 
their  colleagues. 

There  is  also  a  Socialist  Press,  but  it  is  in  the  back- 
ground, and  still  awaits  its  hour. 

There  are  more  than  one  hundred  daily,  weekly,  and 
monthly  journals  and  reviews  in  Tokyo,  and  it  is  the 
same  at  Osaka.  In  the  provinces  each  department  has 
its  journal,  and  as  a  rule  one  portion  is  printed  in  easy 
running  characters  (hirakana)  for  those  who  do  not 
know  the  Chinese  characters. 


VIII 

The  courts  and  tribunals  which  are  competent  to  deal 
with  crime  and  offences  against  the  law  are  thus  con- 
stituted :  There  is  1  Court  of  Cassation,  7  Appeal  Courts, 
49  tribunals  in  the  first  degree,  310  courts  for  the 
Justices  of  the  Peace.     The  organisation  of  Justice  in 


126  THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

Japan  has  thus  commenced  in  very  efficient  fashion 
throughout  the  whole  Empire.  Japan  has  felt  herself 
under  an  honourable  obligation  to  conform  to  the 
customs  and  usages  of  Europe,  There  is  still  much 
to  be  done  before  having  a  perso7inel  of  the  magistrates 
which  is  thoroughly  efficient,  but  this  is  simply  a  ques- 
tion of  time. 

The  strength  of  the  Japanese  lies  in  the  police  ;  dis- 
trustful and  suspicious,  through  heredity  and  education, 
they  are  born  police,  and  are  indeed  astonishing  in  the 
métier  of  the  detective.  Moreover,  if  one  recollects  that 
in  Japan  there  is  a  police-agent  for  1,247  inhabitants, 
one  can  understand  that  there  is  a  more  efficient  police 
in  Tokyo  than  in  Paris,  and  why  it  is  safer  to  walk  at 
midnight  on  the  Eyôgoku  bashi  than  on  the  Pont  de  la 
Concorde.  In  the  entire  Empire  it  is  reckoned  there  are 
731  principal  stations  or  police  bureaux  ;  737  supple- 
mentary police  bureaux  ;  2,746  urban  police  stations  ; 
12,558  rural  police  stations  ;  2,337  inspectors  and  police 
commissaries  ;  38,581  police-agents.  In  spite  of  this, 
there  were  985  cases  of  houses  robbed  with  violence, 
and  232,854  house  robberies  without  violence,  whereas 
thefts  from  persons  for  the  same  year  only  amounted 
to  28,000. 


CHAPTEE  IX 

I.  The  Army  :  French  and  German  instructors— II.  The  Navy  :  French 
instructors  and  engineers  ;  English  professors — III.  System  of  recruit- 
ing ;  latest  modifications  ;  present  reorganisation  ;  increase  of  the 
divisions  and  the  artillery— IV.  State  of  the  Navy  at  the  present  time  ; 
designs  for  construction — V.  Conclusion. 

I 

The  Army  and  Navy  deserve  a  special  chapter,  for  in 
them  is  found  the  Japanese  soul.  The  Japanese  has 
preserved  in  his  traditions  a  love  of  the  profession  of 
arms,  and  every  Japanese  may  be  said  to  be  a  born 
soldier.  In  antiquity  it  was  the  principal  occupation  of 
the  Japanese,  and  fighting  thus  remained  all  through  the 
Middle  Ages  down  to  the  present  period. 

It  is  true  to  say  that  up  to  now  this  has  been  eminently 
successful.  The  first  instructors  of  the  modern  Japanese 
army  were  the  French,  brought  in  by  the  Shogun  in 
1806,  although  the  Eevolution  was  not  entirely  accom- 
plished, and  the  Tokugawa  were  looked  upon  as  the 
sovereigns  of  Japan  by  Europe.  After  the  re-establish- 
ment of  the  Mikado,  in  spite  of  the  French  disasters  of 
1870,  it  was  to  French  officers  that  Japan  turned  to 
form  its  army,  so  that  France  can  say  without 
bragging  that  it  has  created  the  Japanese  Army.  French 
officers  remained  there  till  1888,  and  it  was  only  at  that 
period   that   the  Japanese   Government   sent   for  Major 

127 


128  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

Meckel,   of  Berlin,  who  spent  three  years  at  Tokyo  as 
professor  in  the  Military  School. 

To-day  the  Japanese  are  independent  of  all  the  world, 
and,  owing  to  the  numerous  officers  that  they  send  to 
France  and  Germany,  they  are  accurately  au  courant 
with  all  military  knowledge,  which,  thanks  to  their 
remarkable  natural  aptitude,  they  assimilate  with  such 
rapidity. 

II 

With  regard  to  the  Navy,  the  Shogun  Government 
likewise  addressed  itself  to  France,  and  French  engineers 
were  the  first  to  construct  the  Arsenal  of  Yokosuka. 

But  when  the  Imperial  Government  created  its  Naval 
School  it  appealed  to  the  English.  It  was  only  in  1884 
that  M.  Bertin,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  French 
engineers,  was  requested  by  the  Japanese  to  come  for  the 
space  of  four  years.  The  Japanese  Navy,  then,  has  been 
created  by  England. 

The  campaign  against  China  was  the  first  surprise,  but 
the  campaign  against  Eussia  excited  even  more  astonish- 
ment, and  Europe  and  America  understood  that  a  for- 
midable competitor  had  arisen  in  the  Pacific  and  in  the 
China  seas. 

Ill 

To  those  who  had  closely  followed  the  military  develop- 
ment of  Japan,  to  those  who  from  living  there  understood 
what  resources  of  military  capacity  and  patriotic  strength 
this  country  contains,  the  Japanese  victories  were  not 
unexpected  ;  and  one  must  bear  in  mind  that  in  the  begin- 
ning, to  oppose  the  Japanese  forces,  Russia  had  a  body  of 
troops  that  were  small  in  number  and  badly  organised. 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  129 

It  is  incontestable  that  the  Japanese  is  a  born  soldier. 
In  six  months  he  can  be  fashioned  into  an  excellent  war 
machine  ;  even  a  peasant  coming  straight  from  his  rice 
fields  can  be  turned  into  a  thoroughly  efficient  soldier  in 
less  time  than  it  takes  for  a  French  peasant  to  get  accus- 
tomed to  his  new  duties.  This  clearly  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  Japanese  is  still  close  to  the  mediaeval  period — 
that  is,  to  his  own  mediaeval  period,  which,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  only  ended  barely  forty  years  ago. 

Beared  amidst  the  noise  of  armed  combats,  duelling 
and  wars  between  the  nobles,  the  young  Japanese  was 
necessarily  quickly  enamoured  of  the  career  of  arms.  It 
is  this  atavism  which  has  enabled  him  to  adopt  the  mili- 
tarism of  Europe,  and  to  achieve  so  signal  a  progress 
therein. 

At  the  present  time  Japan,  far  from  resting  quietly 
upon  its  victories,  keeps  a  vigilant  eye  upon  the  future, 
and  ever  since  its  settlement  of  accounts  with  Eussia 
has  disbursed  considerable  sums  for  the  reorganising  by 
various  changes  of  its  military  system  and  organisation. 
Without  noise,  and  with  a  perseverance  and  tenacity  of 
which  it  has  given  more  than  one  example,  its  activities 
have  been  such  that  within  a  comparatively  short  time  it 
can  put  into  action  an  extremely  powerful  army. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  penetrate  the  military  system  of 
Japan.  Everything  which  concerns  the  Army  equipment 
and  ordinances  is  kept  the  closest  secret.  Consequently  it 
is  necessary  to  say  nothing  can  be  known  from  this  side, 
but  what  is  visible  is  the  incessant  work  and  activity  in  all 
the  arsenals  and  establishments  for  military  equipment, 
the  ever-increasing  number  of  regiments,  and  the  sums 
devoted  to  the  Army  and  Navy  of  the  Budgets  that 
get  larger  and  larger;   in  short,  the  thousand  external 

9 


130  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

manifestations  which  no  one  can  ignore,  and  that,  more- 
over, are  impossible  to  conceal.  One  fact  positive  and 
incontestable  is  that  at  the  present  time,  ever  since  its 
victories,  Japan  is  making  V7ar  preparations  v^ith  ever- 
increasing  activity. 

Already  the  Army  that  can  be  put  into  action  has  been 
doubled  since  the  campaign  in  Manchuria,  and  it  is  no 
exaggeration  to  say  that  in  six  or  seven  years  from  now 
at  the  latest,  the  Japanese  Army  will  have  perfectly  ready 
for  action  precisely  the  same  fighting  strength  as  a  good 
European  army. 

So  far  as  the  question  of  fighting  is  concerned,  the 
soldier  is  equal  to  that  of  any  country  in  Europe,  and  is 
dauntless  in  facing  death.  Indeed  it  appears  that  the 
Japanese  soldier  welcomes  death,  and  with  a  population 
of  nearly  fifty  million  inhabitants,  all  willing  to  undergo 
the  supreme  sacrifice,  it  must  be  conceded  that  Japan 
does  not  lack  material. 

An  anecdote  in  circulation  at  the  time  of  the  attack 
on  the  forts  of  Taku  in  1900  by  the  Boxers  reveals  the 
contempt  for  life  felt  by  the  Japanese. 

The  small  warships  anchored  before  the  ports  were 
bombarding  the  latter,  when  a  Japanese  colonel,  finding 
that  the  attack  was  not  going  forward  quickly  enough, 
hurled  his  men  on  to  the  assault  under  a  shower  of  balls. 
They  shattered  a  door  and  entered  the  fort,  but  half  the 
force  was  on  the  ground,  whereupon  a  foreign  officer 
remarked  to  the  Japanese  colonel  that  he  could  have 
arrived  at  the  same  result  without  losing  so  many 
persons. 

"  Oh,"  was  the  reply,  "  there  are  plenty  of  persons  still 
left  in  Japan." 

"With  such  men  one  can  venture  anything. 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE  131 

Military  service  in  Japan  is  obligatory  upon  each  citizen 
without  distinction  between  seventeen  and  forty  years  ; 
the  call  is  made  in  the  year  following  that  on  which  the 
young  man  attains  to  twenty.  Every  year  the  number 
of  citations  varies  between  515,000  and  520,000,  for 
Japan,  not  being  wealthy,  can  only  enrol  under  its  flag 
a  certain  number  of  men  according  to  the  state  of  its 
resources. 

According  to  the  Statistical  Eeport  of  the  Empire,  the 
number  of  young  men  recruited  was,  in — 

1903  188,822 

1904  269,284 

1905  310,866 

1906  201,714 

But  this  table  gives  the  figures  of  the  men  recruited 
during  the  war  ;  since  the  war  the  contingent  has  not 
attained  100,000  men.  The  annual  contingent  remains 
seven  years  in  the  active  army,  and  the  reserve  ten  years 
in  the  reserve  army,  or  Ko  hi  gun,  after  which  he  passes 
into  the  National  Army  or  Kohu  min  gun.  A  part  of 
those  who  are  not  called  to  form  the  annual  contingent, 
but  who  are  nevertheless  efficient  for  service,  receive  an 
abbreviated  course  of  military  instruction,  and  the 
remainder  enter  direct  into  the  Koku  min  gun,  and  remain 
there  till  they  are  forty  years  old. 

In  1907  the  War  Minister  was  authorised  by  Parha- 
ment  to  try  the  experiment  of  a  two  years'  service.  Till 
then  the  Japanese  soldier  had  remained  three  years  in 
the  active  army.  This  experiment  was  only  applicable 
so  far  to  the  infantry,  but  it  nevertheless  gave  the  oppor- 
tunity for  the  incorporation  of  a  much  larger  number  of 
conscripts,  so  that  at  the  present  time  the  annual  contin- 
gent under  canvas  reaches  to  the  figure  of  some  130,000 


132  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

men.  On  the  other  hand,  the  reserve,  which  since  the 
legislation  of  1905  and  1907  necessitates  ten  years  in 
place  of  five,  is  capable  of  furnishing  a  fighting  force  of 
500,000  men.  "We  must  admit  that  this  is  a  pretty  fine 
figure  already,  yet  it  is  only  the  beginning.  If,  as  there 
is  good  ground  for  believing,  the  War  Ministers  of  Japan 
do  not  stop  midway  (and  Parliament  and  the  country  will 
follow  them  in  everything  that  they  desire  to  accomplish 
in  military  matters),  before  twenty  years  have  elapsed 
Japan  will  be  capable  of  putting  into  the  field  an  army  of 
1,500,000  men  ;  it  is  even  possible,  if  the  number  of  young 
men  now  incorporated  is  increased,  that  this  figure  will  be 
reached  within  ten  years.  But  if  from  whatsoever  cause 
the  annual  contingent  remains  as  it  is  to-day,  Japan  could 
put  into  action  in  twenty  years  from  now  1,500,000  men 
completely  efficient  (active  army  and  reserve)  ;  1,000,000 
men,  consisting  of  those  called  the  recruiting  reserve  (in 
Japanese  Ho  ju),  men  who  are  efficient  for  service  but 
who  have  not  been  incorporated  and  have  received  only 
an  abbreviated  training  ;  and  200,000  men  belonging  to 
the  territorial  army.  Finally,  if  appeal  is  made  to  the 
national  army,  the  army  of  the  "  country  in  peril,"  or 
Koku  mm  gun,  Japan  could  have  at  its  disposition 
5,000,000  men.  And  with  the  spirit  of  perseverance  and 
activity  that  characterises  Japan  in  everything  it  under- 
takes, the  realisation  would  not  be  long  delayed. 

The  only  thing  that  could  hinder  the  solution  of  this 
great  military  problem  would  be  the  lack  of  funds. 
Every  one  knows  that  Japan  is  far  from  being  a  wealthy 
country,  and  it  does  not  possess  within  itself  the  sources 
of  wealth  necessary  to  a  people  that  wishes  to  become 
great.  Nevertheless  the  military  spirit  ia  so  strong 
throughout    the    whole    Empire    that    the    population 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  133 

supports  the  burden  of  railitarism  without  a  murmur. 
The  ideal  of  peace  is  an  unknown  thing  at  Tokyo,  and 
for  a  long  day  yet  the  country  can  reckon  for  its  defence 
upon  the  unanimity  of  its  children.  At  the  same  time,  in 
certain  centres,  notably  at  Osaka,  an  actively  industrial 
town  and  an  important  centre  for  workmen  of  all  kinds, 
anti-militarist  ideas  are  beginning  to  find  fairly  favourable 
ground,  and  it  is  recognised  by  all  the  Japanese  officers 
that  the  garrison  of  Osaka  is  more  undisciplined  than  any 
other.  This,  it  is  clear,  is  merely  a  symptom  which  is 
still  slight  in  character,  but  it  is  not  the  less  true  that  the 
fact  exists,  and  that  already  steps  have  been  taken  to 
punish  severely  the  persons  who  are  circulating  amongst 
the  soldiers  pamphlets  attacking  the  Army. 

The  Japanese  have  not,  like  us,  army  corps  ;  their  unit 
is  the  division,  and  it  is  augmented  by  a  brigade  of  the 
reserve.  The  present-day  Japanese  Army  counts  nine- 
teen divisions,  as  well  as  the  division  of  the  guard.  No 
doubt  other  divisions  will  be  created  in  proportion  to  the 
financial  resources,  and  it  appears  probable  that  Japan, 
after  its  new  military  organisation  is  complete,  will 
possess  double  the  number  of  divisions  that  it  has  had 
since  the  war  against  Kussia,  these  amounting  to  twelve, 
with  the  additional  division  of  the  guard.  The  Cavalry 
Division  and  the  Artillery  will  be  augmented.  This 
latter  includes  the  heavy  artillery  for  campaigning, 
and  finally  the  companies  of  the  infantry  will  number 
sixteen.  There  will  be  eight  companies  of  telegraph 
operators  with  one  company  for  wireless  telegraphy. 

According  to  the  different  military  reviews  and  journals 
at  the  time  of  the  war  in  Manchuria  Japan  had  127 
infantry  battahons,  55  squadrons  of  cavalry,  89  com- 
panies  of  engineers.     To-day   it   possesses   already   229 


134  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

infantry  battalions,    73   squadrons   of  cavalry,   54   com- 
panies of  engineers. 

In  three  years,  therefore,  as  will  be  seen,  the  augmen- 
tation has  been  considerable,  and  gives  an  idea  of  the 
rapidity  with  which  the  Japanese  Government  effects  the 
complete  organisation  of  its  war  machinery.  At  the  same 
time  that  it  was  planning  the  forming  of  the  new  divisions 
Japan  effected  great  changes  in  the  uniform  of  its  men. 
These  were  of  two  kinds  :  the  winter  uniform  of  cloth 
and  the  summer  uniform  of  khaki  ;  this  last  was  adopted 
at  the  close  of  the  Eusso-Japanese  War  ;  up  to  then  the 
soldiers  had  gone  through  the  campaign  in  China  and 
Manchuria  with  the  white  costume,  the  too  impracticable 
character  of  which  had  been  recognised.  The  soldier  is, 
however,  much  less  burdened  than  in  France,  being 
accompanied  by  coolies  or  porters,  who  relieve  him  of 
much,  and  he  carries  nothing  beyond  what  is  strictly 
necessary. 

The  transport  and  the  commissariat  are  the  most  com- 
plex parts  of  the  Japanese  Army.  As  rice  forms  the 
principal  element  of  the  food  (equivalent  to  European 
bread),  and  as  its  cooking  is  of  a  most  complicated 
nature,  it  is  necessary  to  carry  baggage,  which  is  one 
of  the  most  serious  impedimenta  of  the  Japanese  Army. 
This  baggage  must  include,  first  of  all,  a  big  iron  pot  ; 
and  as  there  are  several  pots  to  a  company,  it  will  be  seen 
what  this  represents.  I  recollect  to  have  seen  defile  at 
the  mobilisation  for  the  campaign  in  China  interminable 
lines  of  mules  and  horses  loaded  with  immense  cooking 
utensils  placed  on  each  side  of  the  pack-saddle. 

In  the  two  wars  which  they  have  had  to  sustain 
recently,  the  Japanese  were  in  a  position  to  carry  out 
their  re-victualling  as  they  chose.     In  the  first  instance, 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  135 

against  China,  they  had  to  deal  with  an  enemy  which 
vanished  at  the  sight  of  them  ;  in  the  second,  with  an 
army  composed  of  men  who  were  very  brave  but  too 
heavily  burdened,  ignorant  of  manœuvring,  and  who  sub- 
mitted to  be  driven  from  their  positions;  the  Japanese 
then  had  all  through  the  advantage.  But  if  they  had 
to  face  a  quicker,  more  lightly  accoutred  army  with 
swifter  movements,  it  is  possible  that  their  re-victualling 
could  be  checked  without  difficulty. 

To  sum  up,  the  Japanese  up  to  now  have  made  two 
campaigns  in  which  the  winning  cards  of  the  game  were 
on  their  side  and  they  had  no  great  obstacles  to  sur- 
mount. Against  an  enemy  thoroughly  organised  and 
active  they  would  certainly  have  the  same  courage  ;  but 
would  they  have  the  same  success  ? 

Nevertheless,  it  is  essential  that  Europe  should  watch 
the  military  progress  of  the  people  who  have  given  so 
many  proofs  of  their  intelligence,  vigour,  and  unmis- 
takable sense  of  method  and  organisation.  Several 
Governments  have  already  despatched,  and  are  con- 
tinuing to  despatch,  every  year,  officers  with  the  capacity 
to  make  themselves  familiar  with  Japanese  affairs.  I 
am  well  aware  that  this  courtesy  habit  of  an  exchange 
of  military  missions  does  not  lead  to  much  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  military  profession,  because — and  this 
is  natural — one  is  only  shown  what  cannot  be  concealed  ; 
but  nevertheless  it  is  possible  to  succeed  in  understanding 
something  of  the  habits  and  customs,  the  wav  of  looking 
at  things  and  handling  them,  of  a  people  with  whom  one 
is  living,  I  do  not  say  one  penetrates  the  soul  of  the 
people,  for  though  it  may  be  easy  enough  to  penetrate 
the  soul  of  the  Frenchman  transparent  and  frank  (too 
frank),  it  is  much  more  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to 


136  THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 

reach  to  its  depths  the  thought  of  a  Chinese  or 
Japanese. 

Everything  that  I  have  just  v^ritten  upon  the  Japanese 
Army  vi^ith  regard  to  recruiting,  organisation,  and  the 
number  of  serviceable  men,  is  based  upon  the  nev^  mili- 
tary laws,  which  were  altered  or  re-modelled  after  the 
war  in  Manchuria.  A  few  points  may  perhaps  be  lacking 
in  absolute  exactness  (technical  things  of  this  kind  can 
only  be  treated  fundamentally  by  a  military  man),  but 
they  will  suffice  to  give  a  fairly  adequate  idea  of  the 
formidable  war  machinery  that  Japan  is  in  train  to  raise 
and  wield  effectively. 

The  principal  regimental  garrisons  are  Tokyo,  where 
the  division  of  the  Guard  is  quartered,  Sakura,  Sendai, 
Aomori,  Nagoya,  Kanazawa,  Osaka,  Himegi,  Hiroshima, 
Matsuyama,  Kumamoto,  Kokura. 

Since  the  augmentation  of  the  contingent  the  battalions 
have  been  distributed  in  other  towns.  For  instance,  one 
attacking  division  is  always  kept  in  Korea,  and  there  is 
some  question  of  increasing  the  troops  owing  to  the 
ill  reception  given  by  Korea  to  the  introduction  of 
Western  civilisation  by  Japan,  Another  of  the  attack- 
ing divisions  is  stationed  in  Manchuria. 

Hiroshima,  situated  on  the  inner  sea  and  well  sheltered 
and  well  defended,  has  been,  during  the  two  last  wars, 
the  headquarters  for  the  general  officers  and  staff,  to 
which  the  Emperor  was  personally  transported. 

As  I  have  said  in  an  earlier  chapter,  the  Japanese  are 
of  small  stature,  the  men  measuring  generally,  roughly, 
4  ft.  3  in.  to  4  ft.  4  in. 

The  classification  of  the  recruits  educationally  was,  in 
1906,  as  follows  :— 

The  young   men   finishing  their  studies  at  the  High 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  137 

Schools  numbered  492  ;  those  finishing  their  studies  in 
the  Lycées  (Ko  to  chu  gakkô),  8,419  ;  those  who  had 
finished  their  studies  at  the  Lycée,  and  passed  the 
examinations,  numbered  9,277  ;  the  number  concluding 
their  studies  at  the  higher  primary  schools  reached 
62,717  ;  those  who  had  finished  their  course  at  the 
above,  41,442  ;  those  finishing  their  studies  at  the 
primary  school,  145,277  ;  men  who  had  finished  their 
course  at  the  above  school,  37,536  ;  those  who  could 
barely  read  or  write,  59,952  ;  those  unable  to  read  or 
write,  33,564. 

It  will  be  seen  that  there  are  a  considerable  number 
of  illiterate  persons,  as  the  two  latter  figures  may  be 
joined  together,  scarcely  knowing  how  to  read  or  write. 
When  this  refers  to  the  Japanese  tongue  it  is  the  equi- 
valent to  knowing  nothing  at  all  ;  consequently  this  would 
give  93,516  illiterate  persons. 

Some  idea  of  the  number  of  young  men  recruits  sent 
back  and  exempted  can  be  formed  by  the  following 
figures,  also  in  1906,  the  last  published: — 

In  Honshu — that  is  in  the  great  island — the  number  of 
young  men  recruits  was  150,508  ;  number  of  young  men 
sent  back,  2,746  ;  number  of  young  men  exempted  from 
being  called,  127,228;  number  of  young  men  exempted 
from  military  service,  24,620  ;  which  makes  a  total  of 
305,102. 

In  the  Island  of  Shikoku — 

Recruits         15,020 

Sent  back       256 

Exempted  from  call 9,087 

Definitely  exempted            2,150 

In  the  Island  of  Kyushu — 

Recruited       32,209 

Sent  back       376 

Exempted  from  call 19,700 

Exempted  decisively           6,067 


138  THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

In  the  Island  of  Yezo  (Hokkaido) — 

Eecruits          3,917 

Sent  back       ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  50 

Exempted  from  call...         ...         ...  3,205 

Exempted  completely        551 

Total  for  Shikoku,  Kyûshû,  and  Yezo — 

Recruited 51,206 

Sent  back       682 

Exempted  from  call 31,992 

Exempted  entirely 8,768 

These  different  figures  yield  a  grand  total  of  397,750 
conscripts.  These,  it  must  not  be  forgotten,  are  the 
recruiting  figures  after  the  war  against  the  Eussians 
(1906). 


IV 

Whilst  thus  developing  and  increasing  in  an  equally 
complete  manner  its  land  army,  its  offensive  power, 
it  by  no  means  forgets  its  navy,  knowing  that  sea- 
strength  means  the  question  of  life  or  death  ;  knowing 
further  that  for  victory  complete  and  full  there  must  be 
absolute  mastery  of  the  sea,  mastery  of  the  China  Sea 
for  the  moment,  and  in  dreams  for  the  future  mastery  of 
the  Pacific  later  on.  Therefore  it  dedicates  considerable 
sums  to  the  work  of  fitting  out  and  renewing  the  war- 
ships, and  in  giving  much  encouragement  to  its  mer- 
cantile marine,  which  is  capable,  and  under  an  obligation, 
of  acting  as  the  transport  service. 

Its  maritime  population  contributes  a  hardy  and  bold 
element,  and  it  does  not  yet  lack  men  to  man  its  number- 
less boats.  Its  officers  will  bear  comparison  with  those 
of  European  navies,  and  they  possess  that  unshakable 
confidence  which  ensures  a  twofold  victory.  In  addition, 
at  the  present  hour,  the  Japanese  war  fleet  is  one  of  the 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  139 

most  powerful  that  exists  in  the  world,  and  as  time  goes 
on  it  will  increase  in  size  and  value. 

At  the  present  time  Japan  possesses  a  squadron  of 
16  ironclads,  11  cruisers  of  the  first  class,  9  cruisers  of 
the  second  class,  of  which  many  are  already  antiquated 
(Matsushima,  Hashitaté),  30  full  sea-going  gunboats,  60 
torpedo  destroyers,  78  torpedo  boats. 

There  are  on  active  service  77  admirals,  741  superior 
officers,  2,126  officers,  7,857  petty  officers,  29,667  sailors. 
With  the  first  and  second  the  number,  all  told,  reaches 
39,103  men  (not  including  the  officers)  (figures  for  1908). 

For  building  and  repairing,  the  Japanese  Navy  has 
four  military  ports,  viz.  :  Yokosuka,  near  Yokohama,  in 
the  bay  of  Yedo  ;  Kure,  in  the  province  of  Aki,  near 
Hiroshima  ;  Sasebo,  in  the  province  of  Hïzen,  near 
Nagasaki  ;  Maizuru,  province  of  Tango,  on  the  Inner 
Sea. 

The  Budget  for  1907-8  includes  the  credit  accounts 
extending  over  1907  to  1913-14,  designed  to  cover  the 
remaining  expenditure  of  the  war,  and  reaching  to 
^17,500,000,  in  addition  to  a  sum  of  £7,657,700,  which 
it  is  expected  during  the  same  period  will  replace  the 
fighting  units  that  will  have  to  be  erased  from  the  navy 
list.  But  this  had  been  calculated  without  taking  into 
account  the  disastrous  financial  situation  which  did  not 
permit  such  an  immediate  strain,  and  the  credits  under 
this  heading  had  to  be  reduced,  the  first  to  £4,581,142, 
the  second  to  £3,117,813. 

The  ironclads  Aki  and  Satsuma  were  added  to  aug- 
ment the  war  fleet  as  new  units;  the  Mikasa,  which 
had  shifted  and  sunk,  has  been  completely  re-cast, 
and  the  Kussian  ships  taken  at  Port  Arthur  have  been 
modified  in  modernising  them. 


140         THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

The  new  cruisers,  Tsukuha  and  Ikumo,  were  put  into 
service  at  the  same  time  ;  these  new  constructions  were 
not  made  in  the  arsenals,  which  had  already  sent  to  sea 
the  Satsuma  and  the  Aki,  and  that  are  in  the  course  of 
constructing  a  vessel  as  perfect  as  that  turned  out  by 
any  arsenal  of  Europe  or  America. 

The  Japanese  Navy  to-day  ranks  third  in  the  world 
after  England  and  Germany  ;  then  comes  the  United 
States,  and  the  French  Navy,  which  only  a  few  years 
ago  occupied  brilliantly  the  second  rank  next  to 
England,  is  now  relegated  to  the  fifth  ! 


I  shall  add  but  one  reflection  to  this  résumé  of  the 
Japanese  forces  on  land  and  sea.  After  Japan's  war 
against  China,  the  Emperor  William  II.  sent  out  his 
famous  picture,  showing  the  Western  Powers  standing 
closely  ranged  shoulder  to  shoulder  to  oppose  the  Yellow 
Peril  advancing  by  swift  steps.  Beneath  he  had  inscribed 
the  words  :  "  Peoples  of  Europe,  defend  your  most  sacred 
possessions."  People  smiled.  But  who  will  predict? 
The  future  will  give  the  reply.  Has  not  the  present 
already  given  some  response  ?  In  any  case,  one  cannot 
deny  that  Japan,  whilst  preparing  herself  in  so  formidable 
a  manner,  has  conformed  most  carefully  and  punctiliously 
to  the  Si  vis  pacem,  para  helium. 


CHAPTEE  X 


Agriculture  :  Area  of  rice-fields — II.  Total  productiveness  of  cereals — 
III,  Different  kinds  of  rice — IV.  The  haricot,  maize,  the  sweet 
potato,  the  different  vegetables  —  V.  Spices  and  condiments  — 
VI.  Division  of  the  land — VII.  Silk  and  the  culture  of  the  mulberry- 
tree— VIII.  Tea  culture — IX.  Horses  and  cattle — X.  Fruits— XI.  The 
isle  of  Yezo  (Hokkaido)  and  colonisatiou. 


In  the  time  of  antiquity  there  existed  in  Japan,  as  in 
every  other  country  in  those  days,  two  classes — the 
agriculturists  and  the  soldiers  ;  this,  moreover,  is  the 
foundation  of  all  human  society  :  man  must  nourish 
himself  and  defend  himself.  Industry  and  commerce 
only  come  afterwards. 

Even  to-day  Japan  may  be  considered  above  all  an 
agricultural  country  :  60  per  cent,  of  the  population 
live  on  the  land.  The  cultivated  land  is  divided  into 
two  kinds  :  dry-soil  districts,  analogous  to  the  plains  of 
Europe,  which  are  the  less  numerous  ;  and  the  humid 
districts,  serving  exclusively  for  the  culture  of  rice. 
According  to  the  most  recent  statistics  (1908),  the  super- 
ficial area  of  the  rice-fields  is  2,898,792  chô,  and  that  of 
the  other  districts  1,813,913  chô.  The  cultivation  of  rice 
and  other  cereals  over  the  superficial  arable  land  of  the 
Empire  is  thus  distributed  : — 

141 


142         THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

THE  EXTENT  OP  THE   CULTIVATION  OP  RICE, 
BARLEY,   OATS,   AND  CORN. 


^■^'i^h^.0... 

Rice. 
Chô. 

Barley. 
Chô. 

Oats. 
Chô. 

Corn. 

Chô. 

Honshu 

,.     2,285,453 

601,309 

325,643 

293,475 

Shikohu 

150,787 

5,978 

118,620 

21,866 

Kyushu 

441,752 

50,474 

236,495 

118,548 

Yezo 

19,800 

12,075 

19,927 

9,917 

Comparing  the  area  cultivated  to-day  with  that  of  ten 
years  ago,  we  shall  not  find  any  marked  increase.  Japan 
appears  to  have  reached  its  maximum  of  rice  culture  ;  all 
the  districts  that  could  have  been  converted  into  rice- 
fields  have  been  done  so,  and  during  thirty  years  the 
area  of  rice-fields  has  almost  doubled — from  1,611,130 
chô  in  1878,  it  mounted  to  2,898,792  chô  in  1908.  Eice, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  is  the  foundation  of  the  Japanese 
food. 

The  other  cereals,  which  in  1878  represented  an  area 
of  1,433,913  chô,  only  reached  400,000  chô  more  in 
1908,  making  1,833,913  chô,  the  reason  being  that  the 
cereals  are  in  no  way  indispensable,  and  are  used  for  other 
purposes  than  those  of  nourishment. 

II 

The  total  cereal  production  of  Japan — that  is  to  say,  in 
rice,  barley,  oats,  and  corn  ;  the  corn  being  of  a  different 
kind  from  what  is  found  in  Europe,  and  a  kind  of  bearded 
corn  with  a  distinctly  squared  ear  peculiar  to  Japan — is 
as  follows  : — 


TOTAL  PRODUCTION  FOR  ALL  JAPAN. 
Rice  46,302,530  kokus. 


J    ^,  Barley       9,445,238 

X//^  Rye  6,957,932 

U  Wheat       3,962,265 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  143 


III 


There  are  two  sorts  of  rice — the  ordinary  rice,  called 
urushi;  and  the  glutinous,  or  "mochigome,"  rice  (sweet 
rice).  These  are  again  divided  into  a  number  of  varieties 
— at  least  two  hundred  and  fifty  the  Japanese  say — but 
which  we  are  not  able  to  identify.  The  rice  is  grown  in 
the  water;  a  certain  kind  is,  however,  planted  on  the 
mountains,  though  only  in  small  quantities,  and,  more- 
over, this  kind  is  only  found  in  the  parts  of  the  country 
where  there  are  no  means  of  producing  the  ordinary 
rice. 

It  is  used,  as  I  have  already  said,  for  the  daily  food. 
It  is  also  used  for  making  the  yeast  for  "sake"  (rice 
beer)  and  for  vinegar.  Keduced  to  flour  it  enters  into 
the  composition  of  many  different  kinds  of  macaroni, 
tapioca,  vermicelli,   &c. 

The  glutinous  rice  is  used  in  the  making  of  con- 
fectionery and  a  kind  of  sweet  liqueur  ;  it  is  also  used  in 
the  process  of  dyeing  as  starch. 

Barley  is  used  in  the  making  of  the  sweetmeats  called 
a7ne  or  midzuarne,  and  for  cakes  by  boiling  it  and  mixing 
with  sugar. 

From  the  Japanese  wheat  a  species  of  macaroni 
and  vermicelli  are  manufactured  and  a  sort  of  pâte, 
called  fu.  It  is  used  also  combined  with  haricots  for 
the  making  of  slioiju  and  miso.  Two  kinds  of  sauce 
and  confectionery  are  also  made  out  of  it. 

The  rye  is  used  in  the  same  way  as  the  wheat, 
and  contributes  also  to  the  food  of  animals.  In 
addition  to  these  four  cereals  the  Japanese  soil  pro- 
duces : — 


144 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 


Haricot 

Adzuki  (a  sort  of  haricot,  the  phaseolus  radiatus) 

MiUet     

lye  (kind  of  millet) 

Kibi  (kind  of  millet) 

Sarrazin 

Colza      


Kokus.* 
3,261,881 

804,485 
1,829,027 

205,422 

364,269 
1,119,108 
1,018,644 


IV 

The  haricot,  or  mame,  is  found  in  Japan  in  numerous 
varieties  and  is  used  in  an  equally  large  number  of  ways  : 
for  eating  it  can  be  cooked,  or  as  flour  ;  and  it  is  also 
used  for  the  making  of  shoyu,  miso,  and  tofu.  The  shoyu 
and  the  miso  are  two  different  varieties  of  sauces,  and  the 
tofu  is  a  sort  of  cake  resembling  in  appearance  perfectly 
new  cheese.  The  skin,  the  covering,  the  leaves,  and  the 
stalk  are  used  for  the  food  of  horses.  The  different  kinds 
of  millet  are  used  in  the  making  of  food,  principally  in  the 
form  of  confectionery. 

In  addition,  Japan  produces  : — 


Kwamme.t 

Potatoes        

117,969,598 

Sweet  potatoes        

651,678,486 

Cotton 

2,145,625 

Hemp           

2,185,425 

Tobacco         

10,877,910 

Indigo           

9,127,480 

Maize,  or  tomorokoshi,  has  been  imported  earlier  from 
China,  and  the  Japanese  eat  it  in  two  different  ways  :  if 
it  is  of  the  corn  variety  it  is  simply  boiled  ;  whereas 
the  flour  is  made  into  a  soup  or  soft  food  for  infants. 
When  the  maize  is  fresh  it  is  also  eaten  grilled.  This  is 
achieved  by  placing  the  grain  intact  on  the  top  of  the 

*  See  table.     1  koku  =  rather  less  than  5  English  bushels. 
t  See  table.    Kwamme  or  kwan  =  a  little  over  8^  lb.  avoir. 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE  145 

fire.  In  the  way  of  vegetables  Japan  possesses  almost 
all  those  of  Europe  :  the  onion,  eschalot,  carrot,  turnip, 
cucumber,  melon,  pumpkin,  spinach,  sorrel,  and  so  forth. 
In  addition  it  has  a  quantity  of  vegetables  that  are  native 
and  peculiar,  the  result  of  which  is  that  the  vegetarian 
régime  is  carried  to  a  point  unknown  in  Europe.  In 
Japan  one  can  have  an  endless  variety  of  vegetarian 
dishes.  There  is  the  lotus,  usually  cultivated  in  ponds  or 
in  marshy  districts  ;  its  root  {hasu  no  ne  :  root  of  lotus) 
is  exceedingly  good  to  eat  and  starchy  in  composition, 
whilst  the  flower  is  greatly  admired.  The  lotus  is  the 
sacred  flower  of  Buddhism.  The  daikon,  a  kind  of 
enormous  turnip  existing  in  numerous  varieties,  is  eaten 
cooked  or  salted.  They  make  out  of  it  a  sort  of  sauer- 
kraut much  appreciated  by  the  Japanese,  but  very  offen- 
sive in  smell  to  Europeans.  The  imo  or  bulbous  root 
comprehends  a  host  of  varieties,  the  names  of  which 
cannot  be  translated  into  French,  because  the  plant  does 
not  exist  at  all  in  France. 

TsuJcu  imo,  which  is  cooked  for  consumption  ;  its  seeds 
can  also  be  eaten. 

Naga  imo.  From  this  is  made  a  sort  of  oatmeal  eaten 
with  a  special  sauce,  but  it  must  be  crushed  and  pounded. 

Imo,  properly  speaking,  includes  sato  imo,  tono  imo, 
yatsuga  imo,  yegu  imo,  &c.,  the  complete  enumeration  of 
which  would  be  too  long.  All  the  varieties  are  eaten  in 
a  cooked  form.  In  spring  the  tubercles  of  the  yegu  imo 
are  covered  with  earth  to  make  them  sprout.  When  the 
little  shoots,  which  are  given  the  name  of  no  imo,  appear, 
they  are  eaten  ;  and  there  is  still  another  species  called 
hasu  imo,  whose  stem  alone  can  be  utilised. 

Yuri,  the  lily,  is  used  in  Japan  exactly  as  are  carrots 
and  turnips  ;   the  sara  yuri  grows  wild  ;   the  07ii  yuri 

10 


146  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

needs  to  be  cultured  ;  this  latter  has  a  pleasanter  taste, 
and  its  bulb  can  be  crushed  into  flour. 

Na,  or  spinach,  a  herb,  or  perhaps  one  might  translate 
it  as  "  verdure  "  ;  for  in  Japan  all  green  plants  that  are 
edible,  and  there  are  an  infinite  number,  go  by  the  name 
of  7ia. 

Metsuba,  a  kind  of  water  plant  (Cryptotsenia  cana- 
densis). 

Shiso.  The  leaves  are  either  red  or  green,  and  they 
are  salted  and  eaten  after  maceration. 

Takenoko.  The  young  stems  of  the  bamboo,  which 
are  first  boiled  and  then  when  quite  tender  dressed. 

V 

The  Japanese  is  very  fond  of  spiced  condiments  :  he 
constantly  consumes  ginger  (shoga)  either  in  the  raw 
or  preserved  form.  The  young  shoots  are  grown  in 
cellars,  the  roots  being  covered  by  mould  and  vegetable 
débris. 

The  wasabi  or  raifort  is  likewise  much  appreciated, 
also  the  togarashi  or  capsicum,  the  sansho  (Xantoxylum 
piperitum)  the  seeds  of  hemp  grilled,  and  so  on. 

VI 

The  whole  extent  of  the  land  can  be  analysed  as 
follows  :  Lands  belonging  to  the  Crown  Government, 
&c.,  21,394,805  cho.* 

Land  belonging  to  private  persons  :  14,172,339  cho. 

The  population  occupying  the  land  may  be  calculated 
at  about  5,600,000  families,  that  is  64  per  cent,  of  the 
total  population  of  the  Empire,  of  which  some  20  per 

*  See  table. 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 


147 


cent,  possess  a  complete  agricultural  education,  350,000 
young  men  having  passed  through  the  special  schools. 

The  land  is  excessively  cut  up,  the  greater  part  of  the 
rice-fields,  for  example,  having  only  an  area  of  4*50  ares, 
about  484-5441  square  yards,  whilst  even  those  justly 
called  fields  do  not  measure  more  than  968-1,089  square 
yards. 

If  in  addition  we  take  into  consideration  the  ground 
that  must  necessarily  be  sacrificed  round  the  rice-fields, 
so  that  the  talus  can  be  elevated  to  hold  the  water, 
it  will  be  evident  that  for  the  proprietor  of  many 
scattered  fields,  the  labour  of  culture  is  difiicult  and  the 
losses  sufficiently  serious.  Consequently,  since  1900  the 
Government  has  undertaken  to  act  with  the  parties 
interested,  and,  advised  by  qualified  experts,  to  re-adjust 
properties  and  to  distribute  them  in  a  "grouped"  form, 
with  the  object  of  bringing  them  into  closer  union. 
The  owners,  having  everything  to  gain  by  this,  gladly 
furthered  this  movement,  which  seemed  excellent  in  its 
inception,  but  owing  to  a  lack  of  funds,  is  in  abeyance. 


VII 

Japan  produces  a  considerable  quantity  of  silk.  The 
names  of  the  districts  contributing  the  greater  part  are 
as  follows: — 


Ken  of  Miya 

,,  Gnrnma  ... 
,,  Aichi 
„  Yamanashi 
,,  Nagano  ... 
,,  Fukushima 
,,  Saitama  ... 
Gifu 


Yen. 
3,312,490 
9,585,254 
8,358,883 
8,846,864 
34,989,371 
6,188,107 
8,352,784 
6,155,458 
4,885,739 


148 


THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 


Mulberry-trees  occupy  the  following  areas  :- 


Honshu 
Shikoku 
Kyushu 
Yezo    ... 


Chô. 

337,399 

8,218 

16,839 

2,260 


The  culture  of  this  tree  is  very  successful  in  Japan, 
and  it  sometimes  attains  a  height  of  from  twenty  to 
thirty  feet.  Its  leaves,  heart-shaped  and  notched,  are 
sometimes  denticulated  :  its  fruit  ripens  in  summer  and 
is  violet  coloured.  It  is  planted  in  rows  like  the  vine  in 
the  centre  of  France,  and  the  branches  are  cut  in  place 
of  simply  gathering  the  leaves,  with  the  result  that  every 
year  in  the  spring  the  young  branches  shoot  forth  with 
new  vigour. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  mulberry-trees  in  Japan,  the  one 
which  flowers  in  March,  the  other  more  tardily,  which 
flowers  only  in  April. 


VIII 
The  extent  of  the  fields  devoted  to  the  culture  of  the 


tea-plant  is  as  follows: — 


Honshu 
Shikoku 
Kyushu 
Yezo 


Total 


Districts  producing  the  most  tea  are  :- 


Ken  Iharaki 

,,    Shizuoka 
Shi  Kyoto 
Ken  of  Shiga 
„     Miye 
,,      Nara 

Keimamoto 


C!hô. 
...  37,659 
...     3,498 
...     9,299 
Unproductive. 


...  50,456 


Yen. 
454,437 
3,445,679 
739,152 
374,932 
726,211 
376,993 
519,106 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE  149 

I  do  not  propose  entering  into  particular  detail  with 
regard  to  the  culture  of  tea  in  Japan,  as  it  does  not 
present  any  interest  for  Europe. 

All  the  tea  which  Japan  supplies  for  exportation  is 
absorbed  by  the  United  States,  where  it  is  a  speciaHty 
that  would  never,  I  think,  be  appreciated  in  Europe. 


IX 

The  horse  of  old  in  Japan  was  principally  used  to 
carry  the  baggage  of  the  peasants  over  the  footpaths  in 
the  country,  and  also  as  mounts  for  the  soldiers. 

The  Japanese  horse  is  not  an  elegant  animal;  it  is 
narrow-chested,  lean,  and  feeble  in  the  front  legs,  and  a 
rather  poor  expedient  for  carrying  heavy  burdens. 

The  Japanese  Government  has  made  every  effort  to 
improve  the  breed,  and  taught  by  the  last  two  wars,  it 
has  instituted  a  special  administration  for  the  breeding 
of  horses,  under  the  immediate  direction  of  the  Imperial 
Household,  with  a  Privy  Councillor  and  a  former  Minister 
of  State  at  its  head.  But  the  peculiar  circumstances 
existing  in  Japan  operate  in  opposing  any  rapid  develop- 
ment in  the  breeding  of  horses,  the  chief  of  which  are 
the  lack  of  tracts  of  level  ground,  the  existence  through- 
out the  country  of  the  rice-fields,  and  the  absolute 
uselessness  of  horses  for  the  cultivators  of  the  land  and 
for  the  public  generally,  with  the  result  that  their  breed- 
ing has  always  been  more  or  less  neglected. 

The  new  administration  requires  to  have  always  at  its 
disposal  1,500  selected  stallions  from  abroad,  with  the 
object  of  distributing  them  amongst  the  principal  breed- 
ing centres  and  allying  them  with  the  native  mare.  The 
programme  is  fixed  for  a  period  of  twenty-eight  years, 


150  THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 

starting  from  1906,  and  it  is  calculated  that  the  expense 
will  be  30,000,000  yen. 

The  principal  breeding  centres  are  in  the  north,  the 
isle  of  Yezo,  the  districts  of  Nambu,  Sendai,  Miharu  and 
Akita  ;  in  the  south,  Kagoshima.  The  Nambu  horse  is  the 
most  famous  in  Japan  ;  it  is  strong,  comparatively  broad 
in  the  chest,  and  very  wiry.  The  horses  of  Hokkaido, 
Sendai,  Miharu,  and  Akita  belong  to  the  Nambu  species  : 
they  are  docile  and  tough  ;  the  Kagoshima  horse,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  small,  lively,  vicious,  and  often  in- 
tractable. 

The  experiment  of  introducing  foreign  horses  to  im- 
prove the  native  breed,  made  by  the  Japanese  Government, 
has  now  had  a  long  trial,  but  up  to  the  present  it  has  not 
been  successful.  Handsome  and  magnificent  specimens 
have  come  from  France,  England,  America,  Hungary, 
Arabia  and  Australia,  but  after  two  years  in  Japan  they 
have  been  either  dead  or  sick  ;  the  humid  climate  and 
the  lack  of  pasture  land  kill  them. 

The  Emperor,  however,  has  a  stable  of  Australian 
horses,  but  the  luckless  animals  are  only  shadows  of 
what  they  were  formerly  in  their  own  country.  Even 
the  Chinese  horse,  though  tough  and  hardy,  is  soon 
attacked  with  rheumatism  in  Japan,  and  rendered  un- 
saleable. 

A  two-year-old  colt  would  cost  to-day  about  60  yen 
if  native  thoroughbred,  and  about  150  yen  if  crossed 
with  an  alien  breed. 

The  horned  cattle  are  likewise  very  puny.  In  former 
times  they  were  only  used  as  beasts  of  burden  ;  whereas 
the  Japanese  peasant  to-day  is  satisfied  to  use  them  for 
culture  purposes  and  for  transport,  but  he  does  not  rear 
them  for  the  slaughter-house,  in  consequence  of   which 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  151 

the  meat  supplied  to  Europeans  in  the  ports  is  of  very 
bad  quaHty.  The  want  of  good  pasture-lands  will  always 
hinder  the  creation  of  the  fine  breeds  of  cattle  which  are 
seen  in  Europe  and  America  ;  the  milk  is  scanty  and  poor 
in  quality,  and  the  butter  which  has  been  produced  from 
it  detestable. 

Goats  and  sheep  do  not  exist.  Attempts  have  been 
made  to  introduce  them,  but  success  is  only  achieved 
with  great  difficulty,  and  only  in  the  North  ;  as  a  general 
rule,  after  a  short  time,  they  are  attacked  with  illness 
and  quickly  die.  It  frequently  happens  that  they  die 
suddenly  without  any  apparent  cause.  It  must  be  the 
humidity  of  the  climate  that  prevents  their  growing  to 
maturity. 

Pigs  and  chickens  are  found  in  small  numbers.  The 
Japanese  eat  very  little  pork,  and,  moreover,  they  are 
not  very  fond  of  eating  birds. 

X 

In  the  matter  of  fruits,  Japan  is  very  poor.  There  is 
nothing  first-rate  but  the  hiwa,  which  we  have  called 
the  medlar  of  Japan,  and  that  having  been  transplanted 
grows  on  the  southern  littoral  of  France  and  in  Algiers  ; 
the  kaki,  a  fruit  peculiar  to  China  and  Japan,  which  has 
eighty-six  varieties,  and  resembles  a  tomato,  and  the 
mikan,  a  species  of  orange. 

Other  fruits  exist,  but  they  are  unpleasant.  The  plum 
(sume)  cannot  be  eaten  raw  ;  it  is  used  in  the  making 
of  preserves,  and  also  a  sort  of  salted  preserve,  which 
one  eats  the  first  thing  in  the  morning  on  rising.  The 
flower  of  the  plum  is  salted  and  used  for  making  an 
infusion  similar  to  that  of  tea. 


152  THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 

The  peach  (momo)  bears  a  handsome  fruit,  but  it  is 
not  eatable  uncooked.  The  Japanese  preserve  it  by 
boiling  it  with  sugar. 

The  apricot  (ansu)  is  used  in  a  dried  form  ;  raw  it 
is  bitter  and  disagreeable. 

The  nectarine  (sumomo),  the  apple  (ringo),  the  pear 
(nashi),  are  most  inferior  ;  they  have  a  watery  taste,  and 
are  very  insipid  raw;  they  are  eaten  as  compose  with  sugar. 

The  wild  quince  (kwarin)  compares  poorly  both  in  size 
and  quality  with  that  of  Europe.  It  is  eaten  cooked  with 
honey  and  ginger.  In  addition  to  the  mikan  (orange), 
which  is  excellent,  there  exist  in  Japan  many  varieties 
of  the  lemon  :  the  koji,  the  kunembo,  the  daïdaï,  the 
zabon,  the  buntan,  the  bushu  kan,  the  kinkan,  the 
yudzu.  All  these  lemons  grow,  generally  speaking,  in 
the  south  (isle  of  Kyushu).  The  yudzu  alone  supports 
cold.  The  jujube  tree  (natsume),  the  nut-tree  (kurumi), 
the  chestnut-tree  (kuri)  are  found  everywhere,  but  their 
fruit  is  very  poor. 

The  wild  vine  (budo)  grows  in  large  quantities,  and 
yields  a  tolerably  pleasant  fruit. 

The  cherry  (sakura)  is  only  valued  for  its  blossom, 
which  in  spring  is  the  joy  of  Japan. 

For  twenty  years  the  attempt  has  been  made  to 
acclimatise  the  cherries,  apples,  pears,  grapes,  and  straw- 
berries of  Europe  and  America.  With  pears  and  apples, 
the  attempt  has  been  fairly  successful,  likewise  with 
cherries  and  strawberries,  but  the  plants  soon  degenerate. 
The  climate  of  the  Japanese  islands  is  too  humid,  and  is 
clearly  the  cause  of  the  antagonism  which  in  the  veget- 
able kingdom  hinders  the  normal  development  of  the 
fruits  of  Europe,  and  in  the  animal  the  rearing  of 
sheep  and  goats. 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  153 

XI 

Hokkaido  (isle  of  Yezo),  in  the  extreme  north,  and 
remote  from  all  communications  with  the  Japan  of  the 
past,  was  for  a  long  time  neglected  ;  it  served  as  a  place 
of  exile,  and  was  only  peopled  by  the  Ainus,  and  Hakodate 
was  the  only  port  and  station  that  the  Japanese  had  in 
the  island.  The  very  cold  climate  did  not  suit  them 
and,  moreover,  the  journey  to  get  there  was  too 
lengthy. 

Since  the  Imperial  restoration,  the  Government  has 
essayed  to  colonise  the  island  of  Yezo,  more  commonly 
called  Hokkaido  ;  it  has,  first  of  all,  instituted  a  coloni- 
sation bureau,  the  Kai  tahu  shi,  specially  intended  for 
the  administration  of  the  country.  In  addition  to  the 
independent  colonists,  who  do  not  come  in  large  numbers 
into  the  cold  solitudes,  the  Government  wished  to  imitate 
the  Kussians  in  Siberia,  and  create  soldier-labourers,  on 
whom  they  would  bestow  land  ;  in  their  turn  the  latter 
were  to  become  attached  to  the  soil,  and  when  the 
necessity  arose  defend  it. 

But  all  this  organisation  has  produced  nothing  of  any 
importance.  The  idea  was  abandoned,  and  instead  of 
re-attaching  Hokkaido  to  the  general  Government  of 
the  Empire^  a  separate  administration  was  created, 
a  chô,  and  the  island  was  divided  into  keji;  it  was 
then  placed  under  the  authority  of  the  Minister  of 
the  Interior. 

Thanks  to  the  existence  of  coal-mines  in  Poronai,  and 
of  salmon,  herring,  and  whale  fisheries,  and  also  to  the 
increasing  birth-rate  of  the  Japanese  nation,  the  island 
will  probably  end  by  being  densely  populated  ;  but 
there  is   no   doubt  that   the   Japanese   do  not   hke  J>h.e 


154  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

country,    and    will    only    expatriate     themselves    there 
unwillingly. 

The  State  grants  land  on  the  following  conditions  : — 

Land  for  cultivating,  500  cho  at  4  yen  50  the  chô. 
Land  for  breeding,  800  chô  at  3  yen  the  chô. 
Forest  land  800  chô  at  1  yen  50  per  chô. 
Land  given  gratuitously,  10  chô. 

Period  of  time  granted,  at  the  expiration  of  which  the 
land  is  expected  to  be  productive  of  : — 

Five  years  for  the  land  given  gratis. 
Eight  years  for  10  chô. 
Ten  years  for  30  chô. 

For  the  exploitation  of  forest  land,  as  for  the  ex- 
traction of  peat,  the  period  is  doubled.  The  colonist 
who  has  fulfilled  the  conditions  exacted  has  the  right 
to  a  new  contract  with  the  same  terms  and  obligations. 

Some  model  farms  have  been  installed,  principally  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Sapporo.  One  of  them  belongs 
to  the  ShoJcu  yetsu  shoJcu  min  Kwaisha,  and  is  situated 
at  Noboro,  seven  and  a  half  miles  from  Sapporo.  The 
farm  contains  251  families  ;  in  1906  the  company  drew  a 
net  profit  of  5,182  yen.  Another  belongs  to  the  Marquis 
Maeda  (ancient  daimyô  of  Kaga),  is  situated  near 
Sapporo,  and  is  divided  into  an  agricultural  scheme 
and  one  for  breeding.  The  capital  employed  is  about 
80,000  yen,  and  the  profit  in  1906  was  5,797  yen. 


CHAPTEE  XI 

I.  Fisheries— II.  Fishing-boats:  the  takings — III.  Fishing  captures  on 
the  high  seas— IV.  The  whale— V.  Salt  and  salt  fish— VI.  Forests — 
VII.  Some  of  the  most  extensive  woods  in  Japan — VIII.  The  forest 
of  Kisogawa,  belonging  to  the  Crown— IX.  The  camphor-tree— X. 
Mushrooms. 


The  Japanese  are  undoubtedly  born  fishermen  ;  more 
than  three  millions  of  them  live  by  the  fishing  industry. 
This  latter  is  characterised  by  an  extreme  diversity  : 
owing  to  the  situation  of  the  country,  and  being  hot  in 
the  south  and  very  cold  in  the  north,  the  seas  washing 
them  maintain  wholly  different  kinds  of  fish.  In  the 
seas  of  Hokkaido  men  catch  the  herring,  sardine,  salmon, 
and  whale  ;  in  the  south  the  tunny,  the  mackerel,  the 
bonito,  and,  generally  speaking,  the  fish  found  on  the 
Prench  coasts,  also  quantities  of  prawns  and  cray-fish. 

But  Japan,  like  many  other  countries,  suffers  in  having 
a  fishing  industry  too  little  regulated,  and  practised  with- 
out method  ;  the  fish  diminish,  and  certain  species  are 
becoming  rare.  The  law  for  the  protection  of  sea  and 
river  fish,  which  has  been  in  force  several  years,  is  very 
little  observed.  Artificial  fecundation  is  only  applied  to 
the  salmon  at  Hokkaido  and  to  the  oysters  at  Hiroshima. 

The  ascending  of  two  marine  currents  affecting  the 
east  and  west  shores  of  Japan  has  naturally  a  quite 
special  influence  upon  the  marine  life  of  the  Pacific  and 

155 


156  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

the  Sea  of  Japan.  Each  of  the  coasts  being  subject  to 
the  action,  more  or  less  strong,  of  a  warm  current  from 
the  south  and  of  a  colder  one  coming  from  the  north, 
according  to  the  predominance  of  the  one  or  the  other, 
the  temperature  of   the  sea  is  affected. 

Thus  along  the  extent  of  the  northern  shore,  starting 
from  Kinkasan  (Honshu),  the  mean  temperature  is  below 
15°  C,  and  on  the  coast  east  of  Hokkaido  and  the 
Kuriles  it  is  below  10°  C,  owing  to  the  predominance 
of  the  cold  currents.  From  another  side,  owing  to  the 
presence  of  warmer  currents,  affecting  the  whole  length 
of  the  southern  coast  from  the  group  of  islands  at  the 
extremity  of  Izu  to  the  southern  extremity  of  Kyùshû, 
the  mean  temperature  is  above  20°  C,  whilst  near  the 
Bonin  Isles  and  along  the  east  coast  of  Formosa  it  reaches 
+  23°  C.  It  is  comprehensible,  therefore,  as  has  been 
said  above,  how  it  is  that  so  great  a  diversity  prevails  in 
the  marine  fauna  and  flora  of  Japan. 

If  it  is  remembered  that  the  coast  towards  the  Pacific, 
stretching  north  at  the  Kuriles  to  Formosa  on  the  south, 
is  situated  on  29°  of  latitude,  it  is  not  difficult  to  account 
for  the  absolute  difference  in  the  marine  productiveness 
of  the  two  extreme  regions  of  the  country.  Consequently, 
whilst  in  the  north  men  fish  for  herrings,  sardines, 
mackerel,  and  cod,  in  the  south  the  catch  is  more  fre- 
quently the  dory,  the  tunny,  the  bonito,  sole,  and  shark. 

One  of  the  most  curious  scenes  to  be  witnessed  in 
Tokyo  is  the  fish-market  at  Nihon  Bashi  at  four  o'clock 
in  the  morning.  Quantities  of  boats  during  the  night 
have  entered  the  canal,  which  brings  them  right  up  to 
the  market,  where  they  have  unloaded  all  their  fish 
caught  the  preceding  day.  A  collection  of  fish  of  every 
species  and  variety  is  there,  from  the   sardine,  held  in 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  157 

but  slight  account  (it  is  caught  in  autumn  in  large  quan- 
tities in  the  offing  of  Tokyo  Bay),  to  the  shark  and 
octopus,  and  in  between  varieties  of  fish  unknown  to  our 
seas,  and  presenting  the  most  extraordinary  and  ill- 
favoured  appearance. 

The  consumption  of  fish  by  the  Japanese  is  enormous, 
and  they  also  preserve  it.  Notably  the  bonito  is  dried, 
and  becomes  so  hard  that  it  is  taken  for  a  stone  on  which 
to  set  the  knives  ;  the  hatzuohushi  is  the  stand-by  of 
every  good  housewife,  and  is  scraped  into  all  the  soups 
and  sauces. 

The  young  shark  is  greatly  appreciated  ;  the  cuttle-fish 
and  octopus  are  choice  dishes.  As  to  the  herring,  it  is 
largely  used  for  making  manure.  It  is  principally  caught 
at  Hokkaido,  Aomori,  and  Akita. 

The  fishing  season  extends  from  March  to  May,  and 
the  largest  hauls  are  made  on  the  west  coast.  Enormous 
quantities  of  herrings  are  captured,  only  a  small  portion 
of  which  is  reserved  for  eating  (so  small,  indeed,  that  they 
are  never  seen  in  the  market  at  Tokyo),  the  bulk  being 
used  for  the  manufacture  of  oil  and  manure.  This 
manure  from  the  herring  is  one  of  the  factors  contribu- 
buting  to  the  prosperity  of  the  fisheries  in  the  island  of 
Yezo,  although  ever  since  there  has  been  an  importation 
of  herring  manure  from  Siberia  and  sardine  manure  from 
the  coasts  of  Korea  there  has  been  a  diminution  of  the 
gains  at  Yezo.  They  have,  therefore,  notably  at  Akita 
and  Aomori,  begun  drying  and  salting  the  herring  for 
exportation,  the  preserved  form  being  sent  to  China  and 
Australia. 

The  sardine,  which  the  Japanese  eat  fresh,  is  also  very 
plentiful  ;  it  is  the  dish  of  the  poor.  From  it  also  manure 
is  produced,  and  attempts  have  been  made  to  preserve  it 


158  THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

in  oil,  but  the  Japanese  have  not  as  yet  found  out  the 
method  of  doing  this  in  a  pleasing  form. 

Codfish  and  salmon  are  found  in  great  quantities  on 
the  shores  of  the  island  of  Yezo,  and  are  sold  dried  and 
salted,  but  they  are  not  much  Hked  by  the  Japanese. 

Japan  is  pre-eminently  the  country  for  lobster,  prawns, 
and  shell-fish  generally.  The  sea  daily  furnishes  them 
in  such  quantities,  without  any  slackenmg,  as  to  appear 
inexhaustible.  Nevertheless  it  is  begirming  to  be  ob- 
served that  there  is  a  diminution  in  the  yield  of  lobsters, 
which  the  Europeans  living  in  Japan  consume  in 
immense  quantities,  and  have  made  à  la  vwde. 


II 

In  1906  (latest  statistical  report)  there  existed  426,000 
fishing-boats,  almost  all  of  which  were  30  shaku  in  length 
(about  30  feet)  ;  only  24,000  exceeded  this  measurement. 
They  had  caught  in  that  year  : — 

Value  in  Ten. 
Cuttle-fish  and  octopus         2,902,436 

Sardines  4,861,311 

Herrings  5,531,136 

Bonitos 5,303,302 

Shrimps 1,415,263 

Mackerel  1,876,865 

Tunny  fish        1,541,679 

Of  the  variety  of  fish  called — 

Value  in  Yen. 

Yellow-tail        2,823,359 

Dory       3,790,119 

Various  manufactured  fish  products  : — 

Valne  in  Yen. 

Prawns  (dried) 816,542 

Cuttle-fish  (dried)       2,219,150 

Bonitos           „             5,095,044 

Sardines         „            3,324,872 

Sardines  for  manure 532,942 

Herrings  for  food        888,036 

„        for  manure 4,643,100 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  159 

I  have  already  pointed  out  that  there  have  been 
attempts  in  Japan  to  make  different  preservations  of 
fish,  but  they  are  badly  made,  and  Europeans  find 
them  quite  unpalatable.  Japan  lacks  the  oil  which  is 
essential  in  this  mode  of  preparation. 

Ill 

A  navigation  bounty  was  awarded  by  the  Government 
in  1897  (law  was  revised  in  1905)  to  ships  carrying  on 
fishing  on  the  high  seas,  and  claims  for  ships  built  in 
Japan  : — 

Per  gross  ton  of  steel  or  iron 40  yen 

,,            combined  metal  and  wood       ..,        35    ,, 
„  wood  30   ,, 

For  steam  engines  : — 

By  horse-power 10  yen 

For  petrol  engines  : — 

By  horse-power    ...        20  yen 

For  ships  constructed  abroad   and  flying  the  Japanese 
flag:— 

steam  (per  gross  ton)     22  yen 

Bailing  ,,  18  ,, 

Boats  desiring  to  participate  in  the  bounty  must  prove 
their  fishing  in  deep  water  ;  from  50  to  200  tons  for  a 
steamer  devoted  to  fishing,  from  10  to  250  tons  for  a 
sailing  boat  using  nets  for  fishing,  and  from  30  to 
250  tons  for  a  sailing  boat  fishing  with  a  yawl.  For 
bonito  fishing,  the  tonnage  would  be  10  to  30  tons  for  a 
sailing  boat  fishing  on  its  own  account,  and  50  to  200  tons 
for  a  sailing  boat  fishing  by  means  of  its  yawls.  For 
ships  engaged  in   the   transport  service  the  tonnage  is 


160         THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 

from   80   to  350   tons  for  a  steamship,  and  from  15  to 
150  tons  for  a  sailing  ship. 

The  bounty  is  guaranteed  for  five  years.  It  is  renew- 
able on  examination  of  the  ship  and  of  its  equipment. 
Four-fifths  of  the  crew  must  consist  of  Japanese.  Up 
to  now  the  total  amount  of  the  premiums  granted  is 
435,389  yen. 

IV 

For  forty  years  Japan  has  held  a  prominent  position 
in  the  whale  fishery,  and  every  year  there  arrive  on  the 
seas  of  Japan  a  number  of  whalers  from  Europe  and 
America.  But  these  navigators  are  so  active  and  so 
successful  that  they  bid  fair  to  exterminate  the  cetacean 
creature.  Happily,  tired  of  no  longer  finding  them  in 
sufficient  numbers,  they  have  quitted  the  coasts  of  Japan, 
and  as  the  Japanese  do  not  surrender  themselves  much 
to  this  class  of  fishing,  the  whale  is  beginning  to  make 
his  reappearance  in  so  emphatic  a  fashion,  that  the 
Japanese  and  Korean  waters  furnish  rich  spoils. 

The  most  renowned  places  for  whale  fishing  are  in 
summer  the  coast  between  Kinkazan  and  the  extreme 
point  of  the  Bay  of  Tokyo,  in  addition  to  the  coasts  of 
Kyushu,  Tosa,  and  Nagato  (the  latter  in  winter). 

Between  1906  and  1908  an  increasingly  large  number 
of  boats  have  been  employed  in  this  fishing  : — 

March,  1906,  5  steamer 3  captured       434  whales 

,,        1907,  10  steamers  captured     939      ,, 

,,        1907,  1  sailing  boat  captured 19       ,, 

,,         1908,  18  steamers  captured     806       ,, 

,,        1908,  2  sailing  boats  captured 22      ,, 

For  1908  the  hauls  are  furnished  only  for  those  taken 
in  territorial  waters  ;  if  we  add  to  them  those  caught  in 


THE   JAPANESE    EMPIRE  161 

Korean  waters,  the  total  is  considerably  larger.  More- 
over, it  is  not  possible  to  give  the  full  and  exact  results, 
for  many  whalers,  not  receiving  the  premium,  do  not 
furnish  any  information  as  to  the  number  of  their  cap- 
tures. 

The  numbers  given  above  and  those  that  follow  are 
stated  in  the  Japanese  statistics,  notably  in  the  "  Japan 
Year  Book  "  and  the  "  Statistical  Eésumé  of  the  Empire." 

They  may  be  considered  fairly  accurate,  though  I  have 
remarked  some  contradictory  figures. 

VALUE  OF  THE  CAPTURES  ON  THE  COAST  OP  KOREA. 

Value  in  Yen. 

Total  (1906)      2,015,165 

„     (1907)      2,225,521 

RESULTS  OP  THE  FISHING  ON  THE  COAST  OP  SAGHALIEN. 

Value  in  Yen. 

Salmon  trout        41,544 

Herring      19,200 

Salmon       10,677 

Miscellaneous       11,900 


V 

In  a  maritime  country  like  Japan,  the  extraction  of  the 
salt  is  attached  to  the  fishing  industry.  There  exist,  in 
fact,  very  few  salt  mines,  and  it  is  the  sea  which  almost 
entirely  supplies  the  salt.  Sometimes  it  is  extracted  by 
draining  the  marshes,  conveniently  spread  out  on  the  sea- 
shore, through  the  sun's  heat,  sometimes  by  artificial 
means.  The  coasts  of  the  Inner  Sea  are  the  most  produc- 
tive, but  everywhere  it  is  possible  to  produce  a  small 
quantity.  Since,  however,  the  annexation  of  Formosa 
took  place,  it  has  been  in  this  island  especially  that  the 
salt  industry  has  exhibited  so  great  a  development. 

11 


162  THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

Down  to  the  last  war  with  Kussia  there  was  a  monopoly 
of  salt  in  Formosa,  though  its  sale  was  free  throughout 
the  Empire.  Since  the  campaign  in  Manchuria  the 
Government  has  established  this  monopoly  in  every  part 
of  Japan. 


PEODUCTION   OF  SALT. 


Koku.* 

Yen. 

2,741,796 

5,632,480 

1,603,865 

2,692,160 

521,329 

1,889,153 

116 

407 

Honshu 
Shikoku 
Kyushu 
Yezo  ... 


The  principal  districts  furnishing  salt  are  :  Hyogo, 
Okayama,  Hiroshima,  Yamaguchi,  Tokushima,  Kogawa, 
Oita. 

VI 

Japan  from  time  immemorial  has  been  a  country  of 
forests,  the  wood  from  them  having  served  for  every 
variety  of  building  and  industry.  First  of  all,  the  houses 
are  made  of  wood,  and  generally  all  utensils  for  the  house 
and  garden.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  the  consumption 
of  wood  has  been  very  considerable,  but,  more  long- 
sighted than  its  neighbour,  China — which  has  allowed 
the  country  to  be  so  stripped  that  in  certain  regions  not 
a  tree  is  to  be  found — wherever  the  Japanese  has  hewn 
down  he  has  always  replanted  in  precisely  the  same 
measure,  so  that  at  the  present  time,  notwithstanding 
the  pillage  of  the  forests  at  the  time  of  the  Restoration, 
and  the  reckless  cutting  down  of  numbers  of  woods,  and 
of  the  terrible  inundations  which  at  times  ravage  entire 
portions  of  the  forests,  these  latter  still  occupy  nearly 

*  See  table. 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE  163 

59  per  cent,  of  the  territory  of  the  Empire.     One  can 
divide  them  in  this  way  : — 

Chô. 

state  forests 12,020,218 

Crown  forests 2,109,099 

Forests  belonging  to  the  temples  and  to 

private  persons 7,991,796 

Of  this  aggregate  420,096  chô,  forming  part  of  the 
domain  of  the  State  and  the  Crown,  cannot  be  touched, 
whilst  the  remainder — that  is,  7,991,796  chô  belonging 
to  the  forests  of  private  persons  and  the  temples,  and 
13,709,221  chô  belonging  to  the  State  and  Crown 
forests — are  now  under  exploitation.  The  north-east 
districts  of  Honshu  and  Hokkaido  (Yezo)  abound  in 
forests  ;  the  districts  given  below  have  at  least 
500,000  chô  of  forest  territory  :  Iwati,  Tokushima, 
Noyata,  Yamagata,  Gumma,  Ehime,  Yamaguchi  ;  the 
Kens  of  Nagano,  Akita,  Gifu,  Aomori,  which  possesses 
more  than  1,000,000  chô;  and  as  for  Yezo,  the  whole 
island  comprises  12,250,095  chô  of  forests. 

It  is  extremely  difficult  to  get  the  exact  figures  relating 
to  the  private  forests,  as  the  owners  do  not  keep  any  kind 
of  account  of  the  work  accomplished  and  the  expenses  of 
the  exploitation. 

With  regard  to  the  State  forests,  the  reports  for  1906- 
1907  state  as  follows  : — 

Yen. 

Receipts  9,169,272 

Expenses  3,796,862 

The  assessment  of  profits  might  be  much  larger  were  it 
not  that  in  many  places  the  State  forests  are  almost 
inaccessible,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  administration 
disburses  large  sums  for  the  replanting  of  the  forests. 


164  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 


VII 

Japan  is  very  rich  in  conifers  of  all  sorts,  and  possesses 
essences  unknown  in  Europe.  To  give  a  list  of  the 
principal  ones  will  not  be  without  interest, 

Sugi,  or  Gryptomeria  japonica,  is  a  green  tree  attaining 
a  height  ranging  from  90  to  120  feet.  The  centre  is  red, 
the  rest  of  the  wood  is  whitish.  It  is  employed  in 
architecture,  also  for  making  furniture  and  boxes. 

One  of  the  varieties  of  this  tree,  the  yakusugi,  comes 
from  the  island  of  Yaku,  in  the  province  of  Satsuma  ; 
it  is  found  also  in  the  island  of  Sado.  Its  wood  is  very 
resinous,  and  its  grain  very  close.  The  kurohe  sugi, 
which  grows  in  the  provinces  of  Hida  and  Shinano,  is 
a  very  handsome  wood,  with  a  sinuous  grain.  The 
jiudai  sugi,  which  is  simply  the  sugi  that  has  been 
growing  for  long  under  the  earth,  is  found  in  the  lake 
of  Hakone  and  its  neighbourhood.  The  most  beautiful 
specimens  of  Gryptomeria  still  existing  are  those  which 
stand  upon  the  two  sides  of  the  road  leading  from  Ut- 
sunomiya  to  Nikko,  which  were  planted  there  three 
centuries  ago.  They  are  marvellous,  and  evoke  the 
admiration  of  the  traveller.  Some  beautiful  Gryptomeria 
are  also  found  at  Hakone,  round  the  lake. 

Hinoki  (chamaecyparis  obtusa)  is  also  a  tree  per- 
ennially covered  with  leaves.  Its  wood,  which  has  a 
very  close  grain,  exhales  an  agreeable  smell.  It  occupies 
the  first  place  amongst  trees  for  building,  the  finest  trees 
being  found  at  Kiso,  in  the  province  of  Shinano. 

Sawara  (chamaecyparis  pisifera  or  thuyopsis  dola- 
brata)  greatly  resembles  the  above,  its  wood  being 
almost  as  good  as  that  of  the  hinoki.     It  is  employed 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE  165 

alike  for  the  building  of  houses  and  manufacture  of 
furniture. 

Hiba.  A  variety  of  the  foregoing,  a  species  of  Thuy- 
opsis,  resembles  the  hinoki,  but  its  wood  is  whiter. 
It  is  found  in  abundance  at  Nikko. 

Ahamatsu  (pinus  densiflora).  Usually  a  gnarled  tree 
with  a  red  bark.  The  wood  is  white  but  has  a  coarse 
grain. 

Kuromatsu  (pinus  massoniana).  Much  larger  than 
the  trees  named,  though  its  grain  is  analogous.  It  has 
a  black  bark,  and  being  very  cheap  and  capable  of  being 
used  for  different  purposes,  it  is  the  tree  that  is  most  in 
demand  in  Japan. 

Kaya  (torreya  nucifera) .  A  tree  with  perennial  leaves, 
which  grows  to  a  great  size  but  is  not  very  tall.  Its 
wood  is  much  sought  after  by  the  manufacturers  of 
furniture.  It  comes  from  the  provinces  of  Mutsu,  Kii, 
Mikawa,  Yamato. 

Tsuga  (abies  tsuga).  Amongst  all  the  fir-trees,  this 
one  yields  the  finest  wood,  with  a  very  fine  and  very 
hard  grain.  The  best  come  from  the  province  of 
Yamashiro. 

Momi  (abies  firma)  attains  usually  to  a  height  varying 
from  60  to  90  feet,  and  is  found  in  nearly  all  the  pro- 
vinces of  Japan.  The  rapidity  of  its  growth  makes  it 
valuable,  and  it  is  employed  for  all  sorts  of  purposes, 
both  for  building  and  furnishing. 

Icho  (salisbrughia  adiantifolia).  This  tree  has  cadu- 
cous leaves,  varying  sexually.  It  attains  a  height  of 
60  to  90  feet,  has  a  soft  wood,  though  its  grain  is  very 
close,  and  is  used  in  the  construction  of  certain  parts  of 
Japanese  houses  and  also  in  the  manufacture  of  furni- 
ture.    It  is  found  everywhere  in  Japan,  particularly  near 


166  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

the  temples,  and  yields  a  fruit  like  the  almond  (gin  nan), 
which  the  Japanese  eat  roasted;  raw  it  is  poisonous. 

Kurumi  (juglans  Mandchurica).  Nut-tree  from  Man- 
churia. It  produces  a  very  handsome  wood,  which  is 
used  for  the  decoration  of  houses  and  for  making 
valuable  furniture.  Like  the  tree  above,  it  must  have 
been  imported  from  China. 

Sawa  garumi.  Yields  a  white  wood  whose  grain  is 
much  coarser  than  the  one  above  ;  it  is  used  for  joinery. 
The  bark  of  this  tree,  known  under  the  name  of  jukohi, 
is  used  for  the  making  of  those  small  things  which  are 
amongst  Nikko's  most  celebrated  productions. 

Amongst  the  oaks  we  find — 

AkagasM  (quercus  acuta),  with  a  very  close  and  red- 
dish grain,  used  in  the  isles  of  Amakusa,  where  it  grows, 
for  making  oars. 

Shirahashi  (quercus  glauca).  Very  close  and  white 
grain,  used  for  making  the  handles  of  forks,  and  also  for 
charcoal.     Native  of  Kyushu  and  Amakusa. 

Shii  (quercus  cuspidata).  Softer  wood  than  the  pre- 
ceding one.    Its  bark  is  used  for  dyeing. 

Kunugi  (quercus  serrata).  A  species  of  oak  whose 
leaves  serve  as  nourishment  to  the  silkworm  yamamai, 
or  wild  silkworm. 

Kashiwa  (quercus  dentata).  The  cover  of  its  acorn 
is  used  for  making  a  black  dye. 

Kuri  (castanea  vulgaris)  is  a  tree  which,  like  that  of 
Europe,  has  caducous  leaves,  and  attains  to  the  same 
height  as  in  France.  Its  wood  is  used  for  the  con- 
struction of  buildings  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
furniture.     It  is  found  in  almost  all  the  provinces. 

Keyaki  (planera  japonica,  planera  acuminata,  zelkowa 
Keyaki)  is  a  tree  bearing  caducous  leaves  and  attains  an 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  167 

average  height  of  49  feet.  It  yields  a  very  handsome 
and  hard  wood  which  is  greatly  prized.  It  is  used  in 
the  building  of  houses  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
valuable  furniture.  A  variety  of  this  wood  is  found 
with  an  annulary  grain  that  is  called  joriu  ;  it  is  em- 
ployed in  sculpture  and  for  panels  for  decoration.  This 
tree  grows  at  Kyushu,  Nagasaki,  in  Honshu,  Hakone, 
and  Kokura,  in  the  environs  of  Tokyo,  Yokohama,  and 
Yokosuka. 

Enoki  (celtis  sinensis).  A  tree  with  caducous  leaves, 
growing  to  a  height  of  60  feet.  The  grain  is  coarse, 
but  it  serves  for  joinery, 

Tsuge  (buscus  sempervirens) .  Never  attains  a  great 
height.  Its  wood  is  excessively  hard  and  yellow,  the 
grain  being  very  close;  it  is  used  for  making  women's 
combs,  and  plates  for  engraving  and  artificial  teeth  are 
also  made  from  it.  It  grows  in  the  islands  of  the 
province  of  Izu. 

Eiri  (paulownia  imperialis).  Grows  very  rapidly  and 
attains  a  height  of  33  feet  in  ten  years.  Its  wood  is  very 
light  and  soft  ;  its  grain  coarse,  but  it  is  much  prized 
by  carpenters,  who  use  it  for  the  guétas,  or  wooden 
sandals,  for  men  and  women.  A  variety  of  this  wood 
bears  the  name  of  Shimagiri,  and  comes  from  the 
province  of  Izu.  The  grain  of  this  wood  is  finer  and 
closer  than  that  of  the  Kiri. 

Awogiri  (firmiana  platanifolia)  has  a  white  wood,  a 
coarse  grain,  and  is  employed  in  carpentering.  Pro- 
duction of  Kyushu. 

Urushi  (rhus  vernicif era) .  Yields  a  very  beautiful 
yellow  wood  with  a  very  fine  grain.  It  is  used  for 
marquetry  and  similar  work;  from  it  are  also  made 
weavers'  shuttles  and  buoys  for  fishing-nets.     This  tree 


168  THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

grows  'principally  in  the  north.  Its  sap  is  used  in  the 
composition  of  the  lacquer  polish.  It  is  extracted  by 
means  of  excisions  made  in  the  tree,  then  put  into  a 
large  wooden  basin,  and  finally  it  is  turned  up  to  the  sun 
by  means  of  a  large  spatula,  so  that  the  excess  of  water 
may  be  got  rid  of,  after  which  it  is  ready  for  working  on. 

Hagi  (rhus  succedanea)  greatly  resembles  the  above. 
Its  wood,  also  yellow,  serves  for  making  objects  of  small 
dimensions,  and  its  fruit  produces  honey.  It  grows  in 
the  provinces  of  the  south. 

Momiji  (acer  polymorphum  or  palmatum),  the  maple- 
tree,  which  is  very  common  in  Japan,  there  being  over  one 
hundred  varieties. 

Kusufioki  (cinnamomum  camphora),  a  tree  with  ever- 
lasting leaves  from  which  camphor  is  extracted.  Its 
height  reaches  49  feet.  Its  wood  is  very  close  and  hard, 
and  it  is  not  affected  by  contact  with  water,  and  is  much 
sought  after  for  the  construction  of  ships.  It  is  much  used 
in  the  building  of  certain  portions  of  the  Japanese  house, 
and  also  in  carpentry.  The  root  sometimes  exhibits 
strange  designs,  which  are  greatly  esteemed  for  the 
ornamentation  of  rooms.  This  tree  grows  above  all  at 
Kyushii  and  Shikoku,  but  it  is  also  found  in  Hongo,  in 
Miyanoshita,  Atami,  Kanagawa,  and  in  other  localities  of 
the  Bay  of  Tokyo. 

Tsuhaki  (camellia  Japonica),  the  ordinary  camellia.  It 
clothes  the  Japanese  hills,  and  it  often  attains  a  height  of 
33  feet.  Its  wood  is  hard  and  it  is  used  in  carpentering. 
The  berries  are  used  for  the  making  of  oil,  with  which  the 
women  freely  plaster  their  hair. 

Sarusuberi  (lagerstaemia  indica)  is  the  tree  into  which 
the  monkey  (saru)  slides  (suberi).  It  has  no  bark,  hence 
its  name.    It  has  a  very  hard  wood,  a  close  grain,  and  is 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  169 

used  for  making  the  handles  of  tools.    It  is  not  indigenous 
to  Japan,  having  evidently  been  introduced  from  India. 

Take  (bambusa),  the  bamboo;  the  most  useful  and  the 
most  serviceable  tree  in  Japan.  One  may  truly  say  it  is 
used  for  everything — absolutely  everything.  It  exists  in 
numberless  varieties,  and  is  distributed  throughout  the 
whole  country.  It  is  the  tree  ^ar  excellence,  and  it  grows 
with  such  vigour  and  such  rapidity  that  it  is  never  any- 
where absent. 


VIII 

It  is  not  without  interest  here  to  dedicate  a  few  lines 
to  the  famous  forest  of  Kisogawa,  in  the  province  of 
Owari,  which  is  one  of  the  most  important  possessions 
of  the  Crown.  The  forest  covers  153,000  hectares,  of 
which  two-thirds  belong  to  the  Crown.  The  survey  was 
only  finished  in  1908,  because  a  considerable  portion  of 
it  was  virgin  forest  land  and  the  difficulties  of  access 
unnameable.  The  forests  are  almost  entirely  filled  with 
conifers,  amongst  which  the  hinoki  predominates.  Every 
second  year  the  wood  is  thinned  in  the  most  careful 
manner.  The  trunks  are  cast  upon  the  Kisogawa,  whose 
current  brings  them  to  Nagoya.  The  Minister  of  the 
Imperial  Household  derives  about  350,000  yen  profit 
every  year  as  the  result  of  this  activity. 

Transport  facilities  are  lacking,  and  from  this  cause 
the  full  returns  hoped  for  are  not  obtained,  but  the 
railway  line  of  the  "  Grand  Central,"  which  is  actually  in 
construction  and  which  will  traverse  the  forest,  will 
change  the  situation.  It  appears  that  after  all  the  dis- 
bursements have  been  made  to  render  the  cultivation 
really  productive,  the  profits  will  rise  to  2,000,000  yen, 


170  THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

which  will  leave  a  net  profit  of  1,300,000  yen  every  year 
for  the  Crown. 


IX 

The  camphor-tree  is  one  of  the  trees  that  deserve  a 
special  description,  its  product  being  used  throughout  the 
whole  world,  whilst  the  manufacture  of  this  product,  or 
a  considerable  portion  of  it,  is  carried  on  in  Japan  and 
Formosa.  When  the  Japanese  Government  estabHshed 
the  monopoly  at  Formosa,  it  did  so  in  the  belief  that 
the  camphor  of  the  island  would  command  the  markets 
of  the  world.  This  did  not  happen,  because  first 
Japan  and  immediately  afterwards  South  China  aimed 
at  producing  a  still  more  refined  quality,  and  to-day  the 
camphor-trees  of  Japan  have  almost  disappeared,  whilst 
the  Government  have  applied  the  system  of  monopoly  to 
the  whole  country.  But  this  has  not  sent  up  the  market 
price.  China  continues  her  competition,  and  the  Americans 
have  found  a  process  by  which  they  can  manufacture 
camphor  chemically.  The  soil  of  Formosa,  it  is  thought, 
possesses  enough  trees  to  yield  camphor  for  some  twelve 
years,  but  that  is  all.  Young  camphor-trees  have  been 
planted,  but  as  it  takes  at  least  sixty  years  for  a  tree 
to  furnish  an  adequate  crop,  this  operation  "  does  not 
pay." 

At  the  present  time  the  Japanese  are  trying  another 
experiment  in  the  shape  of  plantations  of  young  camphor- 
trees  every  year,  and  the  cutting  down  of  the  trees  at  the 
expiration  of  five  years.  The  extract  of  camphor  would 
not  be  much  from  each  tree,  but  it  would  be  constant, 
and  would  be  capable  of  yielding  a  certain  stock  if  the 
plantations  were  of  sufficient  area. 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  171 

X 

In  this  humid  country,  with  its  stretches  of  forests, 
mushrooms  flourish  in  great  quantities,  and  are  much 
liked  by  the  Japanese. 

The  MatsutaJcé  (agaricus)  springs  up,  as  its  name 
indicates,  in  the  pine  forests  (matsu),  and  is  eaten  boiled 
or  roasted.  It  can  be  kept  for  a  long  time  salted  or 
simply  dried.  This  mushroom  is  seen  in  every  part  of 
Japan,  but  that  of  Kyoto  is  the  most  esteemed. 

The  Hatsudake  is  met  with  in  the  forests,  and  includes 
two  varieties — one  which  is  brownish  and  the  other 
greenish. 

The  KawataJce  springs  up  in  those  parts  of  the  forests 
where  the  sun's  rays  do  not  penetrate.  It  is  dried  and 
kept,  and  has  a  very  agreeable  smell  and  an  exquisite 
taste. 

The  Kihurage  is  a  mushroom  that  grows  upon  different 
trees.  The  finest  are  found  upon  the  mulberry  {morus 
alba)  and  upon  the  nire  {ulmus  campestris),  and  are 
preserved  and  dried. 

The  Shorô  is  met  with  in  the  sandy  localities  where  the 
pines  grow.  It  resembles  a  truffle,  and  is  highly  prized 
for  its  delicate  taste. 

The  Iwatake  is  found  growing  on  the  sharp  rocks  and 
steep  mountains,  and  is  very  difficult  to  procure.  It  is 
dried  and  preserved,  and  is  a  species  of  lichen. 

These  are  the  principal  varieties,  but  there  are  a  large 
number  of  others,  for  Japan  is  pre-eminently  the  land  of 
mushrooms.  The  natives  cultivate  a  kind — the  Shii  take 
{agaricus  campestris) ,  of  which  they  consume  large  quan- 
tities. They  take  a  piece  of  the  trunk  of  a  shii  {quercus 
cuspidata),  or  of  another  tree  of  the  same  family.     In  it 


172  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

they  make  incisions,  then  damp  the  wood  and  leave  it  in 
a  place  deprived  of  light.  At  the  expiration  of  a  certain 
time  the  mushroom  makes  its  appearance.  It  is  given 
its  name  according  to  the  season  :  Haruko  (mushroom 
of  spring),  Natsuko  (summer  mushroom),  and  Akiko 
(autumn  mushroom).  Once  it  is  dried  it  can  be  kept 
a  long  time. 


CHAPTEE  XII 


I.  Industries  in  the  past — II.  Silk  :  its  début  in  Japan — III.  Silk  thread 
and  fabric — IV.  The  dyeing  industry — V.  Pottery — VI.  Crockery  of 
Satsuma  ;  porcelain  of  Imari — VII.  Metal  industry — VIII.  Lacquer — 
IX.  Fans,  screens,  sculpture  in  wood  and  ivory — X.  Japanese  art. 


From  time  immemorial  Japan  has  been  an  agricultm:al 
and  military  country  rather  than  an  industrial  and  com- 
mercial one.  Formerly  the  only  industries  that  existed 
were  in  the  hands  of  certain  families  or  corporations  who 
jealously  guarded  the  secrets  connected  with  them.  Each 
worker  worked  at  his  own  home,  and  often  it  took  twenty 
or  thirty  years  to  complete  a  beautiful  piece  of  silk, 
lacquer- work,  or  porcelain.  It  was  in  Kyoto  that  the 
first  artists  and  artisans  established  themselves.  They 
were  given  protection  by  the  Court,  and  all  the  new 
things  which  passed  from  China  into  Japan  first  found 
an  asylum  in  the  palace  of  the  Mikado,  for,  as  with  every- 
thing else,  all  the  industries  came  from  China.  Later, 
when  pupils  were  trained  in  the  different  schools,  the 
great  feudal  lords  took  under  their  authority  the  manu- 
facturers of  objects  of  the  most  diverse  kinds,  and  it  was 
under  an  aristocracy  that  the  expansion  of  the  first 
Japanese  industry  took  place.  I  propose,  then,  first  of 
all,  giving  a  survey  of  the  silk  industry  which  still  exists 

173 


174  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

at  Kyoto  and  other  centres,  although  its  character  has 
changed,  and  every  day  is  still  changing,  owing  to  the 
introduction  of  European  machinery. 

II 

The  silk  industry  has  existed  since  ancient  days.  The 
buildings  in  ancient  times  were  naturally  primitive,  and 
the  silk  material  was  of  poor  and  thin  quality.  It  was 
towards  192,  under  the  Emperor  Chu  Ai,  that  the  Korean 
fabric,  which  was  far  superior,  was  introduced  into 
Japan,  forming  part  of  the  presents  of  gauze  and  satin 
offered  to  the  Mikado  by  the  King  of  the  Korean  kingdom 
of  Shir  agi. 

Then,  in  270,  under  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Ojin,  the 
King  of  the  Korean  kingdom  of  Kudara  sent  to  Japan  a 
tissue  named  Saiso.  The  Emperor  Nintoku  distributed 
through  the  country  some  Chinese  families,  so  that  they 
might  teach  the  people  how  to  raise  the  silkworm  and  to 
weave.  Finally,  in  794,  when  the  Emperor  Kwanmu 
made  Kyoto  his  capital,  he  created  a  special  administra- 
tion for  the  silk  industry. 

Under  the  direction  of  Hideyoshi,  Chinese  workers 
came  to  Sakai,  the  port  of  Osaka,  which  was  very 
flourishing,  and  taught  the  people  the  art  of  weaving 
gauze  brocade,  gold  brocade,  damask,  and  also  pure  silk, 
the  silk  stuff  which  was  used  at  that  time  in  China  for 
vestments  under  the  Ming  dynasty.  The  Shoguns  of 
Tokugawa  favoured  this  industry,  and  many  of  the 
Daimyôs  did  the  same,  notably  those  of  Yonezawa  and 
Fukuoka. 

It  is  in  this  way  that  the  weaving  of  silk  was  diffused 
in  the  East  as  far  as  Yedo,  where  it  is  still  flourishing  to- 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  175 

day.  Towards  the  Tenshô  period  (1573-1591)  a  weaver 
from  Sakai  came  to  the  quarter  of  Kyoto  called  Nishi  jin 
(even  to-day  the  quarter  in  which  the  weavers  of  Kyoto 
are  still  found)  and  offered  brocade  tissue  and  other  silk 
fabrics.  Very  soon  Sakai  was  surpassed  by  his  pupil, 
and  Nishi  jin  supplied  the  finest  productions.  It  was 
there  that  the  silk  damask  named  Aya  was  created,  and 
brocade,  damask,  satin,  and  other  tissues  for  which 
Kyoto  is  renowned  date  from  the  same  period.  The 
velvet  was  manufactured  later,  in  imitation  of  that 
imported  by  the  Dutch  (in  1596). 

The  silk  crape  dates,  it  is  said,  from  1156,  but  the 
place  where  it  originated  is  unknown.  It  was  certainly 
not  till  1573  that  it  made  its  appearance  in  Kyoto, 
whence  it  was  transmitted  to  Kiryû. 

At  the  present  time  weaving  at  Nishi  jin  is  still  carried 
on  according  to  the  ancient  process,  although  quite 
recently  the  introduction  of  the  Jacquard  system  has 
been   effected. 

The  crape  called  Kanoko  shibori,  or  kanoko  sha 
chirimen,  is  a  speciality  of  Kyoto. 

Embroidery,  one  of  the  most  ancient  arts  of  Japan, 
also  originated  in  Kyoto.  The  robes  worn  at  Court 
were  embroidered  there,  also  the  robes  of  the  Buddhist 
priests,  and  the  collars  and  girdles  of  the  women's  dress, 
as  well  as  the  fukusa,  or  pieces  of  silk  used  for  enwrapping 
the  presents  that  are  sent.  The  embroidery  craft  is 
exactly  the  same  as  that  carried  on  in  France. 


Ill 

The  beginning   of   the  spinning  and   weaving   of  silk 
dates   so   far  back    that   it   is   unknown.      During    the 


176         THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

reign  of  the  Empress  Suiko  (593-628)  Chinese  civilisation 
made  great  progress.  Suiko  encouraged  the  crafts,  and 
quantities  of  pieces  for  making  into  silken  robes  were 
begun.  When  Court  robes  were  in  fashion,  great  use  was 
made  of  a  woven  silken  fabric  called  hirao,  introduced  from 
Korea.  The  manufacture  of  this  stuff  prospered  at  Nara, 
the  capital  town,  in  the  first  part  of  the  8th  century, 
and  after  the  establishment  of  the  capital  at  Kyoto, 
became  very  flourishing.  One  portion  of  the  palace  was 
assigned  to  the  craftsmen  in  silk,  and  was  called  ito 
dohoro,  or  place  of  spinning  thread.  Here  was  produced 
the  thread  used  in  the  preparation  of  Eusudama,  a  large 
ball  composed  of  silk  threads  of  all  colours  interlaced,  and 
suspended  in  the  houses  in  spring  upon  a  certain  day  to 
keep  away  illness. 

The  Court  at  Kyoto  possessed  an  atelier  for  weaving 
and  embroidery.  The  princesses  and  the  ladies  of  the 
Court  had  their  carriages  richly  decorated  with  check- 
strings  in  gold,  silver,  and  silk.  During  the  12th 
century,  at  the  time  of  the  struggle  of  the  Taira  and 
Minamoto,  the  different  pieces  of  armour  belonging  to 
the  warriors  were  bound  together  by  silk  cords. 

The  manufacturers  suffered  greatly  during  the  war  of 
the  15th  century,  but  they  took  on  a  new  lease  of  life 
under  the  administration  of  Hideyoshi  (Taikosoma). 
Then  under  the  Tokugawa,  as  the  Daimyôs  had  to  come 
and  render  homage  to  the  Shoguns,  there  was  rivalry 
between  them  as  to  who  should  wear  the  most  richly 
embellished  costume  in  silk  tissue  from  Kyoto.  At  this 
very  day  the  woven  tissue  is  still  reckoned  one  of  the 
accessories  of  the  Japanese  toilette. 

The  silken  strings  for  musical  instruments  date  their 
use    from   most    ancient    days.     The    Emperors    Inkio 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  177 

(411-453),  Monmu  (697-707),  and  Ninmiyo  (834-850), 
were  great  lovers  of  the  harp  (biwa),  and  encouraged  the 
making  of  the  strings.  About  1131  a  blind  man  from 
the  town  of  Sahai  invented  the  Sliamisen  (guitar),  for 
which  silken  strings  were  likewise  wanted. 

During  the  era  of  Tempo  (1830-1844),  at  a  time  when 
the  silk  craft  was  in  a  very  flourishing  situation,  a 
Corporation  of  manufacturers  of  silk  thread  and  tissue 
established  itself.  A  branch  establishment  was  settled 
at  Yedo,  where  woven  silk  was  extensively  employed  in 
the  ornamentation  of  the  hilts  of  sabres.  In  1883  and 
in  1893  the  company  was  remodelled  and  reorganised. 

IV 

The  dye  industry  was  known  in  very  ancient  days  in 
Kyoto,  and  the  great  skill  acquired  by  its  workers 
attracted  those  of  other  localities,  who  could  not, 
however,  attain  their  finish,  the  fact  being  that  the 
superiority  of  the  dyeing  process  in  Kyoto  was  due  to  the 
excellence  of  the  water  in  Kamogawa.  The  celebrated 
dye  called  Yuzen  is  one  of  the  branches  of  commerce  in 
Kyoto. 

In  addition  to  the  old  well-known  dyes  such  as  indigo 
(ai),  saffron  (béni),  madder  (akana),  the  Japanese  employ 
a  number  of  other  tinctorial  plants  derived  from  the 
tropics. 

It  is  not  known  from  what  period  the  art  of  dyeing 
in  Kyoto  dates;  but  without  going  far  wrong  one  may 
assign  the  date  710  ;  for  at  this  time  the  process  of  apply- 
ing wax  (rokitsu)  to  those  portions  of  stuff  that  were  not 
to  be  dyed  was  already  known.  This  industry  made  little 
progress  till  the  day  that  Yuzen,  a  celebrated  priest  as 

12 


178         THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 

well  as  an  artist,  living  in  one  of  the  numberless 
monasteries  of  Kyoto,  improved  the  existing  methods, 
and  so  widely  extended  their  scope  that  his  name  has 
remained  associated  with  processes  in  dyeing  employed 
to  this  day  in  Kyoto.  They  consist  in  covering  with 
Nori  (a  sort  of  paste)  the  portion  of  the  material  which 
is  not  to  be  dyed,  and  in  withdrawing  this  Nori  by 
means  of  heat  as  soon  as  the  dye  is  definitely  fixed.  The 
velvets  and  crêpons  of  Kyoto,  Yuzen  genre,  are  widely 
known. 

V 

Pottery  is  also  one  of  the  industries  brought  from 
China  that  made  its  first  home  in  Japan  at  Kyoto.  It 
comprises  several  varieties,  Awata,  Kiyomizu,  Baku, 
Kenzan,  and  Yeiraku.  The  two  latter  are  no  longer 
manufactured. 

The  Ceramic  industry  dates  even  further  back;  it  is 
mentioned  in  the  historic  books  published  before  our  era. 
Two  hundred  years  after  Christ  ceramic  pottery  had 
made  progress,  and  the  history  tells  us  that  in  the  year 
400  pottery  manufactories  were  established  in  the  five 
provinces  of  Yamashiro,  Ise,  Settsu,  Tamba,  Tajima.  In 
720  a  priest  named  Giyogi,  a  native  of  the  district  of 
Otori,  in  the  province  of  Izumi,  invented  the  lathe,  and 
from  that  moment  the  scope  of  the  ceramic  art  seems 
to  have  been  recognised  and  it  rapidly  perfected  itself. 
The  modes  known  to  the  Chinese  and  Koreans  were 
brought  into  employment,  and  great  manufactories  were 
founded  in  the  provinces  of  Kizen,  Hizen,  Owari.  In 
1510  there  made  its  appearance,  for  the  first  time  in  Japan, 
porcelain  as  we  now  understand  it.  Thanks  to  the 
manufactories   established  in  the  province  of  Hizen  and 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE  179 

Owari  as  well  as  in  the  town  of  Kyoto,  the  art  of  ceramics 
made  rapid  progress.  In  Japan  there  are  three  distinct 
genres  :  Awata  Yaki,  Satsuma  YaJà,  Awaji  Yaki. 

The  origin  of  the  Awata  Yaki  is  not  very  well  known  ; 
but  according  to  tradition  it  dates  from  the  first  years  of 
the  Tempo  Era  (729-748),  and  seems  to  have  been  dis- 
covered by  a  Bonze  of  the  village  of  Yamashina  in  the 
east  of  Awata.  At  the  end  of  the  Keicho  period  (1596- 
1614)  a  potter  named  Kiuyemon,  living  at  Awataguchi, 
stamped  "Awata  "  on  all  the  objects  that  he  manufactured, 
and  from  that  time  all  the  productions  issuing  thence 
have  been  given  the  name  of  Awata.  To-day  the  methods 
employed  in  manufacturing  have  been  perfected,  and  the 
Awata  articles  are  much  valued. 

The  pottery  of  Komizu  was  first  manufactured  at  the 
village  of  Seikanji,  but  at  the  commencement  of  the 
17th  century  the  manufactories  were  transported  to 
Gojo  Zoka,  east  of  Gojo.  The  colouring  and  painting 
in  gold  were  the  discoveries  of  Chawanya  Kiubei  and 
Nonomura  Ninsei.  This  latter  built  a  factory  at 
Sanneizaka,  where  he  made  very  delicate  earthenware. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  one 
Kumakichi  introduced  changes  in  the  manufacture  and 
the  painting. 

The  pottery  called  raku  was  introduced  about  1530 
by  a  Chinese  or  a  Korean  who  installed  himself  at  Kyoto 
and  did  not  again  leave  Japan.  His  son,  Choyu,  suc- 
ceeded him,  and  in  1588  received  from  the  Shogun, 
Hideyoshi,  instructions  to  make  some  pottery  in  reddish- 
black  colouring,  after  designs  furnished  by  Eykyu,  a 
famous  Master  of  Ceremonies  attached  to  the  person 
of  this  general  for  the  Ceremonies  of  Tea  Drinking. 
Hideyoshi  was  so  satisfied  with  the  result  that  he  made 


180         THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

a  gift  to  Choyu  of  a  seal  bearing  the  characters  raku 
(satisfaction,  joy,  pleasure),  whence  the  name  of  the 
porcelain,  rahu  yaki. 


VI 

It  was  Shimazu  Yoshihisa,  one  of  the  generals  sent 
into  Korea  by  Hideyoshi,  who  created  the  Satsuma  ware. 
On  his  return  from  the  expedition  in  1598  he  brought 
seventeen  celebrated  potters,  whom  he  established  in  the 
two  provinces  of  Satsuma  and  Osumi.  Later  he  collected 
all  these  workers  in  a  place  named  Nayeshirogawa.  As 
these  workmen  only  intermarried  with  the  Koreans  they 
preserved  for  a  long  time  their  manners,  their  language, 
and  their  distinctive  type.  At  the  present  time  one  finds 
at  Nayeshirogawa  several  hundreds  of  families,  forming 
a  total  of  three  thousand  individuals,  who  practise  in 
every  particular  the  craft  of  their  ancestors.  In  1630  a 
celebrated  potter  named  Boku  teigo  discovered  the 
ShirotsucJii  (white  earth)  in  the  environs  of  Nayeshi- 
rogawa ;  this  discovery  produced  a  perceptible  improve- 
ment in  the  manufacture  of  these  articles.  It  was  from 
this  period  that  gold,  silver,  and  colouring  matter  were 
employed  in  the  decoration  of  the  faience  ware. 

The  porcelains  of  Imari  (Hizen),  of  Seto  (Owari),  of  the 
provinces  of  Mino,  of  Kutani  (Kaga)  came  also  from  China. 

It  was  either  the  Chinese  or  Korean  emigrants  who 
introduced  the  process  of  manufacturing  ;  or  it  may  have 
been  that  some  of  the  Japanese,  as,  for  instance, 
Gorodayu  Shunsui  from  the  province  of  Ise,  repaired  to 
China  to  learn  there  how  to  make  porcelain,  and  to  con- 
struct the  kilns  needed.  All  the  varieties  of  porcelains 
flourished  in  Japan  between  1500  and  1600. 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  181 

Before  the  arrival  of  the  Europeans  in  Japan  the 
manufactories  of  Imari,  Seto,  and  Kutani  furnished 
the  Court  and  the  aristocracy  with  some  striking  pieces, 
some  of  which  exhibit  a  richness  of  colour  absolutely 
unique.  Few  of  these  specimens  of  earlier  times  exist 
and  they  are  no  longer  produced  to-day,  or  at  least  only 
very  rarely. 

The  kilns  are  working  for  the  exportation  trade,  and 
in  the  ports  of  Yokohama,  Kobe,  and  Nagasaki  one  finds 
Imari  ware  for  "  globe-trotters,"  sold  at  two  yen  the 
dozen  article.  Any  one  who  has  travelled  in  the  extreme 
East  has  seen  at  Shanghai  and  in  all  the  ports  of  China, 
Singapore,  Eangoon,  and  Calcutta,  the  shops  in  which 
Japanese  knick-knacks  are  for  sale  at  absurd  prices;  great 
vases  from  Satsuma,  pottery  from  Kyoto,  plates  from 
Imari,  the  products  of  a  Japanese  ceramic  art  that  is 
in  its  decline.  A  great  quantity  must  be  sold  and  very 
cheaply. 

The  big  European  emporiums  also  sell  the  Japanese 
things  very  cheaply,  to  the  shame  of  the  artists  who  were 
the  ancient  manufacturers  of  Nippon. 

VII 

The  metal  industry  has  been  carried  on  in  Japan  in 
most  ancient  times,  the  Japanese  having  shown  in  this 
work  a  dexterity  and  taste  quite  remarkable. 

The  introduction  of  Buddhism  marked  a  new  epoch  in 
the  advancement  of  the  art  of  metal  work,  owing  to 
the  entrance  of  different  sorts  of  ornamentation  in  the 
construction  of  the  temples,  and  also  owing  to  the 
number  of  objects  made  of  copper  necessary  in  the 
ceremonies  of  the  cult.     The  high  degree  of  ingenuity 


182         THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

attained  by  the  artists  in  metal  during  the  reign  of  the 
Emperor  Shomu  (714-748)  is  plainly  attested  by  the 
statues,  vases,  and  accessories,  and  other  ceremonial 
articles  preserved  in  the  temples  of  Kyoto  and  Nara. 
The  period  of  internal  wars  which  prevailed  without 
interruption  during  the  twelfth  century  caused  the 
Buddhist  idols  to  fall  into  discredit  and  developed  tastes 
in  other  directions  ;  the  artists  employed  their  talents  in 
the  decorating  of  arms  and  armour.  The  beautifully 
tempered  sabres  marked  Masamune  date  from  this  period, 
and  are  known  to-day  throughout  the  whole  world.  The 
tastes  of  the  artists  manifested  themselves  especially  in 
the  embellishment  of  the  helmet,  sabre,  and  scabbard. 

After  the  event  of  Tokugawa  and  the  arrival  of  peace 
the  weapons  industry  was  patronised  by  the  Shogun 
and  by  the  Daimyos:  to-day  the  ornamentation  of 
helmets  and  sabres  has  give  place  to  other  industries 
of  a  more  important  character. 

"We  may  truly  say  that  the  Japanese  are  acquainted 
with  every  description  of  ornamentation.  From  China 
and  Korea  they  learned  the  principle  of  printing,  engrav- 
ing, casting,  the  welding  of  different  metals,  and  so  forth  ; 
and  beneath  their  dexterous  hands  the  copper,  bronze, 
and  iron  assumed  the  strangest  forms,  and  one  stands 
amazed  before  the  extraordinary,  bizarre,  and,  speaking 
generally,  ghastly  imagination  of  the  artists. 

Often  one  feels  inclined  to  say  that  the  figures  and 
forms  issue  from  some  Dantesque  hell.  The  chief 
substances  employed  for  the  casting  of  ornaments, 
statues,  musical  instruments,  clocks,  &c.,  are  : — 

Seido  :  Green  copper. 

Udo  :  Black  copper. 

Shido  :  Violet  copper. 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  183 

The  first  is  a  combination  of  copper  and  lead  ;  to  this 
is  sometimes  added  tin.  The  second  is  a  combination  of 
copper,  tin,  and  lead  (a  variety  of  TJdo  being  the  sentohudo 
obtained  by  the  same  constituents  but  in  different  pro- 
portions).    The  third  is  composed  of  copper  and  lead. 

Schinchu  (yellow  copper)  is  made  of  copper  and  zinc 
with  sometimes  a  small  quantity  of  lead. 

Shakudo  is  a  fusion  of  copper  and  gold. 

Shi  bu  ichi  consists  of  six  parts  of  copper  and  four 
parts  of  silver. 

The'polishing  of  these  different  combinations  is  effected 
by  baking  them  with  sulphur,  or  sometimes  sulphate  of 
iron  or  prune  vinegar  is  used. 

VIII 

As  in  the  case  of  all  the  other  industries,  the  origin  of 
the  preparation  of  lacquer  is  not  very  clearly  known  :  it 
is  said  that  in  the  reign  of  Koan  Tennô  (392-291  b.c.) 
there  lived  a  certain  Mitsumo  Sukune,  who  appears 
to  have  been  the  ancestor  of  the  families  engaged  in 
this  industry.  Another  chronicle  reports  that  one  day 
Yamato  dake  no  Mikoto,  son  of  the  Emperor  Keiko 
(71-130  A.D.),  was  in  a  hunting  expedition  when  the 
sap  of  a  certain  tree  fell  on  his  sleeve  and  soiled  it. 
Observing  how  difficult  it  was  to  remove  the  spot  caused 
by  this  sap,  and  recognising  that  it  might  be  employed  in 
protecting  articles,  he  had  his  armour  covered  with  it  :  his 
attendants  did  the  same,  and  this  was  the  first  employ- 
ment of  varnish.  It  is,  however,  infinitely  more  probable 
that  this  is  a  legend,  and  that  lacquering,  like  the  rest, 
came  from  China  and  Korea.  Indeed,  one  must  not 
forget  that  at  a  period  when  China  was  already  advanced 


184         THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

in  civilisation  under  the  dynasty  of  the  Tcheou  (1123-246 
B.c.)  Japan  was  nothing  more  than  a  collection  of  savage 
tribes,  and  that  it  is  due  to  China  and  Korea  that  the 
tribes  have  become  a  civilised  nation.  Under  the  reign  of 
the  Emperor  Kotoku  (645-654)  a  special  administration 
was  created  to  supervise  the  manufacture  of  lacquer. 
Bed  lacquer  was  not  known  until  the  reign  of  the 
Emperor  Temmu  (673-695).  This  lacquer  was  made,  and 
is  still,  in  the  North  of  China,  and  that  of  Pekin  is  the 
most  celebrated  :  the  red  lacquer  made  in  Japan  is  much 
inferior.  To  encourage  the  planting  of  trees  for  lacquer 
the  Emperor  Mommu  (697-707)  accepted  the  payment  of 
taxes  in  the  shape  of  the  sap  of  this  tree. 

The  lacquer  industry  made  great  progress  during  the 
first  half  of  the  8th  century  :  different  processes  of  colour- 
ing were  discovered  as  well  as  the  application  of  gold. 

The  internal  disorders  which  were  repeated  during  the 
reign  of  the  Emperor  Sujaku  (930)  arrested  the  advance 
of  this  art  as  it  did  that  of  many  other  arts  ;  but  the 
luxurious  habits  of  the  nobles  of  the  Court  at  Kyoto  soon 
gave  it  again  a  new  impetus,  and  the  artists  in  lacquers 
were  sent  for  by  the  Daimyos  in  every  part  of  the 
Empire. 

When  Yoritomo  established  his  capital  at  Kamakura,  a 
number  of  craftsmen  followed  him  there,  but  the  centre 
of  the  lacquer  industry  always  remained  at  Kyoto.  Some 
wonderful  examples  of  former  centuries  can  be  admired 
in  the  museum  of  Ueno  at  Tokyo.  The  Japanese  Govern- 
ment buys  at  high  prices  all  the  beautiful  specimens  that 
went  abroad  at  the  period  of  the  disturbances  connected 
with  the  Imperial  Restoration. 

At  the  present  time  such  thorough  work  as  lacquer  is 
no  longer  produced.     In  former  days  artists  put  all  their 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE  185 

strength  into  the  creation  of  their  work,  whereas  in  our 
days  gimcrack  things  are  manufactured  cheaply  for  ex- 
portation and  chef  d'œuvres  are  rare. 

Lacquer  is  furnished  by  the  sap  of  the  rhus  vernicifera. 
There  exist  at  least  a  dozen  different  ways  of  preparing 
the  glaze,  according  as  to  whether  it  is  left  pure,  or  with 
a  mixture  of  other  substances,  such  as  sulphate  of  iron, 
tobacco  water,  oil,  vermilion,  indigo,  or  orpiment. 

The  glazes  are  manufactured  in  various  places,  amongst 
others  at  Aizu,  in  the  province  of  Iwashiro  ;  in  the 
province  of  Suruga  ;  in  the  province  of  Wakasa  ;  at 
Tsugaru  ;  Wajima  ;  Noshiro  ;  in  the  province  of  Kii  ;  at 
Nikko  and  at  Odawara. 

None  of  these  towns  produce  lacquer  of  a  superior 
quality.  Eoughly  speaking  the  best  workmen  and  the 
finest  specimens  of  lacquer  are  found  in  the  three  towns 
of  Tokyo,  Kyoto,  and  Osaka.  It  is  the  same  with  the 
gold  lacquer,  the  process  employed  varying  according  to 
the  localities.  The  following  are  the  principal  processes 
for  the  preparation  of  glaze.* 

One  of  these  consists  in  collecting  the  sap  of  the  rhus 
vernicifera  in  its  pure  state  in  a  large  wooden  basin  ;  then 
stirring  it,  whilst  exposed  to  the  sun,  by  means  of  a  long 
spatula,  with  the  object  of  relieving  it  of  its  excess  of 
water  by  evaporation  :  the  kuro  me  urushi  is  thus 
obtained.  When  the  polish  thus  obtained  is  passed 
through  a  sifter  the  seshi  me  urushi  is  yielded.  By 
mingling  kuro  me  urushi,  sulphate  of  iron,  and  toshiru 
there  is  produced  the  kii^ro  urushi  (toshiru  is  the  water, 
more  or  less  turbid,  which  is  obtained  by  sharpening  the 
knives  used  for  cutting  tobacco  on  a  grinding  stone) . 

According  to  the  nature  of  the  kuro  me  urushi  employed 

*  According  to  the  official  publications  of  the  Japanese  Government. 


186         THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

the  qualities  of  the  combination  bear  different  names,  as 
follows  : — 

Boiro,  superior  quality,  used  without  being  diluted 
with  oil. 

Hakushita,  another  superior  quality,  also  employed 
without  oil. 

Ho7i  kuro,  medium  quality,  diluted  with  oil. 

IÔ  liana,  another  medium  quality. 

Chin  hana,  another  medium  quality. 

Ye  hana,  inferior  quality. 

Su  umshi.  This  glaze  is  composed  of  kuro  me  urushi 
and  of  the  finest  vermilion  which  can  be  obtained,  or  of 
the  kinds  named  sanyoshu  and  kamiyoshu.  The  first- 
named  medium  quality,  and  the  qualities  following, 
necessitate  the  employment  of  oil.  For  the  last-named 
quality  Benigara  (composed  of  red  oxide  of  iron)  is  used 
in  place  of  vermilion. 

Awo  urushi.  This  lacquer  is  obtained  by  mingling 
kuro  me  urushi  with  shiwo  (orpiment)  and  aïro 
(indigo).  These  two  substances  are  diluted  with  oil, 
or  employed  dry  and  in  the  form  of  powder. 

Ki  urushi.  Obtained  by  a  combination  of  kuro  me 
urushi  and  shiwo. 

Nashiji  urushi.     Similar  to  the  above. 

Swikei  urushi.  For  this  lacquer,  kuro  me  urushi  in 
its  pure  state  is  used. 

Akahaya  urushi  is  used  for  the  intermediary  layers. 

Tamo  suni  urushi.  For  the  superior  quality  the 
Nashi  ji  urushi  is  used,  and  for  the  medium  qualities  the 
kuro  me  urushi. 

Nashi  ji  keshi  urushi.     Similar  to  the  Nashiji. 

The  substances  that  enter  into  the  composition  of 
lacquer  are  : — 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  187 

Yi  no  Jco  sabi.  Composed  of  stones  ground  (awasedo) 
and  pulverised,  with  a  small  quantity  of  seshi  me 
urushi. 

Kiriko  sabi.  The  same  as  the  preceding  named,  but 
finer. 

TanoTco  sabi.  Very  finely  ground  stone  mingled  with 
seshi  me  urushi. 

Nikaiva  sabi.  The  same  powder  mixed  with  strong 
glue. 

Nori  sabi.  The  same  powder  mixed  with  rice  paste. 
This  combination,  formerly  unknown,  consists  of  lacquer 
and  rice  paste  in  equal  proportions,  to  which  is  added  the 
powder  of  ground  stone.  Being  less  dense  it  offers  but 
slight  resistance  to  the  spatula,  and  yields  a  fine  colour 
to  the  topmost  layer  of  lacquer.  This  lacquer,  however, 
easily  peels  off,  and  is  also  of  very  inferior  quality. 

Let  us  now  examine  the  different  methods  employed 
for  lacquering  articles. 

Kataji  roiro  7iuri,  known  likewise  under  the  name  of 
kurokise,  is  thus  prepared  :  A  piece  of  bcehmeria*  cloth 
is  taken,  which  is  cut  according  to  the  size  of  the  article 
to  be  covered,  care  being  taken  to  apply  it  in  such  a  way 
that  there  is  no  fold,  and  covered  with  a  layer  of  sheshime 
urushi,  so  that  it  may  be  glued  and  secured  in  this 
condition.  Finally,  a  layer  of  shiriko  sabi  is  spread  on 
the  top  so  that  every  trace  of  the  fabric  may  be  oblit- 
erated. When  this  coating  is  dry  it  is  polished  by 
means  of  a  whetstone.  This  done,  a  layer  of  tonoko 
sabi  is  placed  on  the  top,  which  in  its  turn  is  polished 
in  the  same  manner.  Finally  a  coating  of  Chinese  ink 
is  applied,  and  spread  upon  this  with  a  spatula  a  coating 
of  yoshino  urushi.  After  this  has  been  dried,  this  new 
*  The  "  ramie  "  or  hempen  linen  of  China, 


188  THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

coating  is  repeatedly  submitted  to  polishing  by  means  of 
water  and  charcoal,  to  which  the  name  of  koshiwo  shinu 
is  given.  This  operation  is  effected  by  taking  a  little 
of  the  charcoal  powder  in  the  fingers  and  polishing  with 
the  hand.  Finally  the  whole  is  covered  with  a  layer  of 
ordinary  lacquer,  v/hich  care  is  taken  to  dry  immediately. 
Directly  it  is  dry  a  layer  of  roiro  urushi  is  applied, 
which  is  likewise  rendered  dry.  It  is  then  given  several 
polishings  with  the  hand,  first  with  charcoal  and  then 
with  calcined  deer's  horn. 

This  description  will  give  to  the  reader  an  idea  of  the 
labour  involved  in  lacquering  an  article,  and  we  shall 
therefore  be  satisfied  to  enumerate  the  diverse  other 
descriptions  of  lacquer,  which  are  as  follows  :  Hana 
nuri  ;  handa  nuri  ;  shunkei  nuri  ;  kaki  awese  nuri  ; 
tame  nuri  ;  seishitsu  nuri  ;  ki  uro  nuri  ;  uru  mi  iro 
nuri. 

Tsugaru  nuri.  This  kind  of  lacquer  undoubtedly 
entails  the  greatest  care  in  its  preparation.  This  is 
begun  by  carefully  cutting  away  the  wooden  joints  by 
means  of  a  chisel,  and  stuffing  the  interstices  with 
kokudzu,  a  mixture  of  flour,  wood-shavings  and  rough 
lacquer,  the  joints  being  consolidated  by  means  of 
pegs.  The  woodwork  is  finally  covered  with  a  coating 
of  glaze,  consisting  of  calcined  clay  and  rough  lacquer 
mixed  with  water.  The  cloth  is  then  spread  in  the  usual 
way  upon  the  wood  with  a  mixture  of  flour  and  rough 
lacquer,  this  operation  being  called  nuno  kise.  After 
this  they  apply  a  combination  of  coarse  lacquer  and 
calcined  clay  at  the  joints  of  the  different  pieces  of  cloth  ; 
a  first  layer  of  lacquer  is  spread  over  all  and  polished 
with  a  large  whetstone.  This  first  operation  completed, 
a  new  combination   of    carbonised   clay  and  powdered 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE  189 

whetstone  in  equal  proportions  with  the  same  of  rough 
lacquer  is  applied,  the  object  being  to  thoroughly  weld 
the  lower  coating.  The  whole  is  then  polished  with  a 
still  finer  whetstone,  and  to  efface  the  traces  left  by  this 
polishing,  a  coating  of  sabi  urushi  is  applied,  consisting, 
that  is,  of  rough  lacquer  mixed  with  powdered  whetstone 
steeped  in  water.  This  new  coating  is  likewise  polished 
with  a  still  finer  whetstone,  and  bears  the  name  of 
awoto.  The  article  is  then  covered  with  a  coating  of 
kuro  me  urushi,  and  placed  in  a  cupboard  to  protect  it 
from  any  light  penetrating.  Finally,  the  list  of  minute 
operations  is  completed  by  a  polishing  smooth  with  a 
piece  of  charcoal,  and  we  have  in  our  possession  an 
article  as  smooth,  shining,  and  flawless  as  a  bit  of  glass. 

To  obtain  the  marbled  variety  the  method  given  below 
is  pursued.  The  quality  of  lacquer  called  yoshino  urushi 
is  mixed  with  diverse  colouring  substances  and  the  white 
of  egg,  the  latter  yielding  greater  consistency  to  the 
combination,  and  beaten  with  a  very  fine  spatula  ;  the 
lacquer  adheres  in  portions  to  the  spatula  and  produces 
the  depressions  which  form  the  basis  of  the  marbled 
lacquer.  A  layer  of  lacquer  as  described  above  is  then 
applied  ;  then  follows  a  coating  of  roiro  urushi,  which 
is  intended  to  separate  the  latter  from  a  new  layer  that 
is  similar  but  spread  with  a  brush.  Upon  this  is  placed 
a  coating  of  lacquer  of  another  colour,  then  one  of  roiro 
urushi,  and  finally  two  layers  of  lacquer  of  different 
colours.  The  operation  is  completed  by  thoroughly 
drying  the  whole  object.  Thus  dried  it  is  polished 
with  three  kinds  of  whetstones,  each  finer  than  the  last, 
and  finally  exposed  to  the  sun  for  two  or  three  days, 
which  process  renders  the  colour  more  rich  and  brilliant. 
A  layer  of  coloured  lacquer  is  applied  to  obliterate  the 


190         THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

traces  of  the  last  polishing,  and  again  it  is  polished  anew; 
a  new  layer  of  lacquer  is  again  added,  and  another 
polishing  takes  place  with  a  stone  called  Nagurato. 
The  effect  of  the  sun  upon  these  colours  is  to  enhance 
their  brilliancy.  When  everything  is  finished  the  article 
is  rendered  as  smooth  and  as  clear  as  possible  by 
covering  with  a  combination  of  oil  and  powdered  whet- 
stone applied  with  a  tampon  of  cotton  wool  and  rubbed 
up  and  down  till  it  begins  to  sparkle.  A  wad  of  cotton 
wool  soaked  in  raw  lacquer  is  used  for  rubbing  the  article, 
then  oil  is  poured  over  and  powdered  deer's  horn  dusted 
on  to  this,  and  the  whole  surface  is  rubbed  dry  with  silk 
paper,  which  yields  a  matchless  radiance. 

Finally  there  remains  the  genre  of  lacquer  known 
as  the  tsui  koJcu  nuri,  of  which  it  is  superfluous  to  give 
a  description,  as  it  more  or  less  resembles  all  the  others, 
with  the  exception  that  the  pattern  is  traced  after  several 
layers  of  lacquer  have  been  applied.  In  all  these  accounts 
of  lacquer,  nuri  means  lacquering  and  lacquer;  nuri 
mono,  the  object  being  lacquered.  Urushi  is  the  varnish 
drawn  from  the  rhus  vernicifera,  with  which  the  lacquer 
is  made.  In  former  days  gold  lacquer  was  the  Japanese 
artist's  triumph.  What  marvels  have  been  thus  created  in 
past  ages  !  To  estimate  these  one  must  go  to  the  museum 
of  Ueno  in  Tokyo,  where  there  is  a  collection  of  some 
of  the  most  beautiful  specimens  of  the  Japan  of  the  past. 
Some  of  the  ancient  Daimyos  also  personally  owned  some 
very  delightful  examples.  The  variety  of  lacquer  that  is 
only  found  in  Japan  is  called  Makiye. 

At  the  present  time  certain  Japanese  artists  have 
endeavoured  to  reproduce  in  gold  lacquer  some  other 
articles  in  addition  to  the  boxes,  tables,  and  screens  which 
were  made  in  the  time  of  Kwanmu  Tennô  (a.d.  782-805), 


THE   JAPANESE    EMPIRE  191 

but  these  handsome  objects  are  too  costly,  and  are  only 
purchased  by  the  Court  (90  per  cent,  going  to  the 
Emperor)  and  given  as  presents.  Gold  lacquered  goods 
are  not  the  kind  of  merchandise  which  "  pays,"  as  the 
EngHsh  say,  consequently  one  does  not  often  see  them. 
The  Japanese  confine  themselves  to  a  poor  sort  of  imita- 
tion cheaply  made  for  the  use  of  Europeans  and  the 
common  people. 

IX 

Fans,  screens,  wood  and  ivory  carving  were  also  im- 
ported from  China;  likewise  cloisonné  or  shippo.  This 
latter  never  attained  in  Japan  the  solid  quality  of  the 
Chinese  cloisonné,  though  it  had  greater  elegance.  At 
the  present  day  Tokyo  and  Yokohama  manufacture  a 
quantity  of  cloisonné  for  exportation,  but  little  of  it  can 
be  kept  without  deterioration. 

Ivory,  on  the  other  hand,  has  been  in  all  ages  worked 
by  the  Japanese  with  a  skill  and  taste  which  have 
surpassed  those  of  their  Chinese  masters.  The  netsiike, 
for  which  amateurs  of  things  Japanese  have  a  craze, 
presents  innumerable  forms,  and  exhibits  an  endless 
variety  of  scenes  and  personages.  Moreover,  the  modern 
craftsmen  have  not  become  degenerate,  and  one  can 
still  discover  to-day  wonderful  specimens  amongst  the 
numberless  ivories  exhibited  in  the  Yokohama  shops. 


X 

All  Japanese  art  has  come  from  China,  and  more 
especially  in  the  divers  objects  manufactured  in  bronze, 
lacquer,   and   kakémono,   the   Chinese  legends   and  the 


192         THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

ancient  Chinese  root  ideas  can  be  discerned.  It  is  at 
the  same  time  very  evident  that  the  Japanese  have 
greatly  improved  the  primitive  art  of  the  Chinese  ;  they 
have  refined  it  and  given  it  a  more  elegant  and  gracie  lis 
form.  But  one  must  admit  that  the  passion  for  Japanese 
art  that  exists  in  Europe  and  America  is  simply  "  snob- 
bishness "  (snobisme).  A  European  who  has  been  fifteen 
or  twenty  years  in  Japan  may  finish  by  appreciating  the 
very  pecuhar  art  of  the  country;  but  let  him  return  to 
Europe  and  find  himself  in  the  presence  of  the  master- 
pieces of  French,  Italian,  Spanish,  Flemish,  or  English 
art,  or  enter  in  spirit  into  the  nobility  and  grandeur  of 
the  works  created  by  Western  genius — from  the  ancient 
Greeks  down  to  the  Christian  epoch,  in  the  time  of  the 
Eenaissance  and  in  our  contemporary  epoch  ;  and  he  will 
quickly  find  all  remembrance  of  bronze  vases  encircled 
with  dragons,  perfume  vessels  of  Satsuma,  and  ivory 
netsuké  obliterated  !  Japanese  art  does  not  carry  one 
away  ;  it  is  an  art  of  delicate  and  often  very  charming 
details  indicating  a  considerable  amount  of  labour.  It  is 
not  a  highly  imaginative  art. 


CHAPTEK  XIII 


The  new  forms  of  industry — II.  Industrial  societies  actually  in 
existence — III.  Different  kinds  of  enterprise— IV.  Principal  weaving 
districts — V.  Pottery,  lacquered  ware,  and  matches — VI.  Leather 
works — VII.  Tinned  food  ;  paper,  &c. — VIII.  Government  manufac- 
tories— IX.  Japanese  opposition  ;  employment  of  European  capital  in 
the  country — X.  Wages  and  salaries — XI.  Retrospective  sketch. 


After  having  explained  what  trade  was  in  ancient  Japan, 
I  shall  try  and  give  a  survey  of  the  industries  of  Japan  as 
it  is  now — of  Japan  transformed.  The  official  publications 
of  the  year  1908-1909  furnish  the  statistics,  by  the  aid  of 
which  one  can  get  an  idea  of  the  industrial  development 
of  Japan,  conceived  according  to  modern  ideas. 

The  greater  part  of  the  new  industries,  which  have 
grown  up  under  the  new  form  of  government,  have  been 
inaugurated  by  the  Government  ;  cotton  winding,  spin- 
ning of  cotton  and  silk,  shipbuilding,  the  manufacture  of 
cement,  glass,  matches,  gas,  brick,  weaving  and  other 
industries,  are  all  due  to  official  initiative.  Between 
1880,  the  year  in  which  the  properties  of  the  State  were 
offered  for  sale,  and  1893,  when  the  spinning  mill  of 
Tomioka  was  ceded  to  the  Mitsui  Company,  almost  all 
the  manufactures  of  the  State  passed  into  the  hands  of 
individuals.  To-day,  except  for  some  special  industries, 
which,  for  financial  considerations,  are  directed  by  the 

13  1^ 


194 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 


State  under  the  form  of  monopolies,  and  military 
manufactures,  the  State  controls  nothing  except  the 
coining  of  money  and  printing. 


II 

As  I  have  already  said,  agriculture  is  the  principal 
wealth  of  Japan  ;  trade  is  still  in  its  infancy-  there,  and 
it  is  not  able,  in  spite  of  many  good  publications  brought 
before  the  eyes  of  the  public,  in  French,  English,  and 
German,  to  struggle  against  European  trade.  What  is 
wanting  is  capital. 

The  industrial  societies  which  existed  in  1906,  with 
a  turnover  of  at  least  5050,000,  were  the  following  : — 


Cotton  spinning 

..     38 

Printing  and  type        

.  100 

Mines  and  metallurgies 

..     54 

Silk  fabrics         

.     53 

Electric  lamps 

..     89 

Bricks  and  tiles             

.     45 

Shipbuilding      

..     16 

Oil            

.     24 

Petroleum  wells 

..     37 

Grain-refining 

.  107 

Paper  works       

..     45 

Copper  and  iron  manufactures 

28 

Gas          

..       8 

Rolling-stock 

.       3 

Coal  mines         

..     32 

Flax  and  hemp  threads 

.       2 

Spinning,  other  than  cotton  . 

..       7 

Salt          

.     29 

Sugar  refineries 

..       8 

Saw-mills           

.     50 

Unbleached  silk 

..  263 

Knitting  machines        

.     17 

Sake  (rice  alcohol) 

..  225 

Cotton  fabrics 

.     85 

Cement 

..     17 

Ice  (for  drinking)          

.     19 

Beer         

..       5 

Other  fabrics      

.     50 

Rope  and  thread 

..     13 

Coke         

.      8 

Chemical  productions  ... 

..     11 

Dyeing  and  cleaning 

.    32 

Manure 

..     44 

Mills        

.    21 

Woollen  fabrics 

..     11 

Matches 

.     40 

Leather 

..     13 

China  and  crockery  ware 

.    31 

Vinegar,  shoyu,  and  miso 

..  120 

The  industries  enumerated  above  were  only  installed 
for  the  most  part  after  the  revision  of  the  treaties  which 
opened  the  whole  country  to  foreign  trade  (1899) .  Those 
which    existed    previously    are  :     sugar    refineries,    the 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE  195 

manufacture  of  unbleached  silk,  of  spirituous  liquors  and 
shoyu,  and  different  kinds  of  textures  (except  woollen), 
the  manufacture  of  paper  and  things  made  out  of  paper, 
tanneries,  tile  factories,  dye  works,  tobacco  factories,  salt 
refineries,  oil  works,  china  works,  mines,  and  quarries. 

The  capital  actually  employed  in  these  different  enter- 
prises, that  is  to  say,  the  capital  turned  over,  was 
131,314,400  yen,  equal  to  ^13,131,400. 

The  total  number  of  manufactories  on  December  31, 
1906,  was  10,361,  of  which  5,705  only  employed  manual 
labour,  and  4,656  were  worked  by  steam. 

The  total  number  of  people  employed  was  at  this  period 
611,521,  of  which  242,288  were  men  and  369,233  women. 

Ill 

The  different  kinds  of  trades  were  thus  divided  : — 


Workmen 

Trades. 

By  steam. 

By  Hand. 

per  Day. 

Textiles  :  Spinning 

...  2,237 

390 

150,626 

„       Winding         

...     199 

45 

86,030 

,,       Weaving 

...     304 

2,300 

84,315 

,,       Plaiting         

...       33 

84 

4,076 

Machinery  :  Manufacture  of  machines 

...     221 

34 

24,543 

,,         Shipbuilding        

...       25 

29 

19,535 

,,        Various  tools       

...     153 

115 

11,751 

,,        Foundries             

...       47 

62 

3,148 

Chemicals  :  Pottery            

...       89 

474 

20,332 

„        Gas            

7 

— 

432 

„        Paper  manufacture 

...       49 

43 

6,255 

„        Dyeing       

...       43 

138 

5,739 

,,        Leather     

...       11 

14 

573 

„        Explosives            

...       62 

201 

22,328 

,,        Manure     

...       20 

2 

1,564 

„        Drugs         

...       45 

39 

3,040 

,,        Various     

...       49 

40 

2,442 

Poods  :  Breweries 

...       82 

654 

16,223 

,,     Sugar  Refineries         

5 

4 

1,320 

„     Tobacco  manufactures 

...     152 

62 

23,750 

„     Tea         

...       19 

13 

1,270 

,,     Lemonade,  ice,  mineral  waters 

...       10 

— 

200 

196 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 


Workmen 

Trades. 

By  Steam. 

By  Hand. 

per  Day. 

Foods  : 

Flour  and  grain  refining  ... 

...     132 

6 

2,670 

,,    Eeady-made  clothes 

...       14 

23 

913 

,,     Tin  ware           

...       21 

16 

943 

„     Various              

...       19 

78 

1,971 

Not  classed  :   Printing        

...     145 

128 

12,207 

>> 

Paper  objects     

...       14 

69 

2,582 

>> 

Wooden  and  bamboo  objects 

...     137 

142 

9,199 

>> 

Leather  articles 

5 

14 

1,031 

)> 

Objects  made  of  feathers 

5 

21 

2,282 

)) 

Eeed  and  straw  plaiting 

1 

110 

18,589 

9) 

Stone-cutters      

4 

5 

366 

>> 

Lacquer-goods 

1 

16 

322 

5) 

Various 

...       40 

188 

8,597 

Specialities  :  Electricity     

...       26 

2 

976 

„ 

Metallurgy          

...     154 

125 

58,611 

,, 

Coal          

21 

6,422 

IV 

The  principal  weaving  districts  are  the  Ken  or  pre- 
fectures of  :  Aïchi,  Chiba,  Ehime,  Fukui,  Fukuoka, 
Fukushima,  Gifu,  Gumma,  Hiroshima,  Hyogo,  Ishikawa, 
Kyoto,  Miye,  Nara,  Niigata,  Okayama,  Osaka,  Saitama, 
Shiga,  Shizuoka,  Tochigi,  Tokushima,  Tokyo,  Toyama, 
Wakayama,  Yamagata,  Yamaguchi,  Yamanashi. 

The  most  important  factories  for  the  production  of 
cotton  are  these  : — 


Saitama  to  the  value  of 

Aichi  ,,  ,, 

Ehime         ,,  ,, 

Miyo 

Tochigi        ,,  ,, 


Those  which  produce  most  silk  are 


Fukushima,  to  the  value  of 

Fukui  ,, 

Kôyto  ,, 

Ishikawa  ,, 

Gumma  ,, 

Tokyo  ,, 

Niigata  „ 


Yen. 
5,766,000 

12,226,000 
7,241,000 
5,700,000 
5,094,000 

Yen. 

4,987,000 

21,397,000 

14,029,000 

12,082,000 

9,532,000 

5,111,000 

4,854,000 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 


197 


Silk  and  cotton  fabrics  are  sent  out  principally  from 
the  factories  of  : — 


Ten. 

Saitama,  to  the  value  of        

979,000 

Kôytô               ,,            ,,         

6,888,000 

Tochigi            ,,            ,,         

3,563,000 

Gumma           ,,            ,, 

3,517,000 

Aïchi                ,,             ,,         

174,100 

Gifu 

1,118,000 

Linen  and  cloth  are  only  represented  by  a  low  figure  ; 
but  the  factories  of  Shiga  produce  1,399,000  yen  (hemp), 
and  those  of  Wakayama  1,081,000  yen  (wool).  Yamanashi 
does  not  produce  hemp,  but,  to  make  amends  for  that, 
produces  4,330,000  yen  worth  of  woollen  fabrics  ;  it 
is  the  only  district  where  wool-weaving  is  of  any 
importance. 

The  following  table  shows  the  value  (in  yen)  of  the 
production  of  different  fabrics,  silk,  cotton  and  silk,  cotton, 
linen,  wool  in  ten  years,  from  1896  to  December  31, 1906. 
One  sees  that  the  progress  made  is  constant,  except 
during  the  years  1903  and  1904,  at  the  time  of  the  war 
against  Eussia  : 


Year. 

Silk. 

Silk  &  Cotton. 

Cotton. 

Linen. 

Wool. 

1896 

46,361,000 

10,281,000 

37,053,000 

1,965,000 

— 

1897 

62,663,000 

11,727,000 

42,032,000 

2,903,000 

— 

1898 

73,045,000 

16,216,000 

47,996,000 

2,967,000 

— 

1899 

84,147,000 

18,546,000 

45,577,000 

3,161,000 

3,384,000 

1900 

74,578,000 

20,275,000 

57,745,000 

2,851,000 

5,034,000 

1901 

70,061,000 

12,180,000 

45,607,000 

2,775,000 

5,083,000 

1902 

60,904,000 

20,538,000 

53,030,000 

2,420,000 

4,040,000 

1903 

36,710,000 

13,459,000 

45,945,000 

2,1.34,000 

4,280,000 

1904 

45,503,000 

9,933,000 

50,651,000 

2,044,000 

6,760,000 

1905 

60,384,000 

15,371,000 

72,844,000 

3,528,000 

10,047,000 

1906 

93,606,000 

20,253,000 

86,474,000 

3,390,000 

6,630,000 

198         THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 


The  ceramic  industry  has  increased  from  5,063,000  yen 
in  1897  to  13,385,000  yen  in  1906,  with  a  total  export  of 
7,942,000  yen,  or  £794,200.  These  products,  except  for 
some  remarkable  pieces,  are  generally  those  we  see  in 
Japanese  shops  all  over  the  world,  where  they  sell,  to  the 
amateur  who  knows  nothing  about  them,  the  Kaga  and 
Imari  of  recent  date  for  ancient  ones,  for  which  he 
pays  dear.  The  principal  centres  of  this  industry  are 
Aïchi,  Fukushima,  Gifu,  Ishikawa,  Kanagawa,  Kyoto, 
Saga,  Ehime,  Hyogo,  Miye,  Nagasaki. 

It  is  the  same  with  the  production  and  export  of 
lacquer.  The  people  no  longer  make  beautiful  and  unique 
things  as  in  ancient  times,  when  the  manufacture  and 
its  secrets  were  the  property  of  a  few  families,  of  which, 
often,  one  of  the  members  began  a  work  which  was 
finished  by  another,  because  this  work  required  thirty  or 
forty  years  of  patience  and  labour.  The  specimens  of 
lacquer,  even  those  of  gold  lacquer,  which  we  actually 
see,  are  quite  inferior  ;  it  is  work  for  export.  In  1906 
1,721,000  yen  worth  of  lacquer  goods  were  exported,  the 
total  production  being  in  value  6,809,000  yen.  Ishikawa, 
Fukushima,  Shizuoka,  "Wakayama,  are  the  districts 
which  employ  most  workmen  in  this  industry. 

Swedish  matches,  without  sulphur  or  phosphorus,  are 
quickly  becoming  a  Japanese  speciality.  The  whole  of 
the  Far  East,  except  French  Indo-China,  depends  on 
Japan  for  this  kind  of  produce.  From  India,  Burmah, 
and  Siam,  to  China,  Korea,  and  Manchuria,  boxes  of 
Japanese  matches  are  always  found,  even  in  the  distant 
provinces  of  Western  China,  such  as  Yunnan  and  Kan 
Sou.     And  they  are  so  cheap  that  one  wonders  how 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  199 

the  manufacturers  make  their  profit.  One  only  under- 
stands when  one  is  acquainted  with  the  starvation 
wages  given  to  the  Japanese  workers,  generally  girls, 
who  make  the  boxes.  The  latter  are  made  in  a  very 
clever  way.  For  instance,  those  which  are  exported 
into  China  are  covered  with  a  yellow  label,  on  which 
a  dragon  or  a  phœnix  makes  hideous  contortions  ;  on 
both  sides  is  the  name  of  the  manufacturer  in  Chinese 
characters.  Often,  instead  of  the  dragon,  Chinese  children 
are  represented,  Chinese  religious  ceremonies,  or  some 
celebrated  Chinese  historical  character.  For  India, 
Burmah,  and  Siam  it  is  the  same  :  each  box  of 
matches  bears  some  picture  representing  something 
characteristic  of  the  country,  and  the  name  of  the  firm 
is  always  inscribed  in  the  language  of  the  country.  In 
French  Indo-China  they  have  established,  in  imitation  of 
the  metropolis,  a  monopoly  of  matches  ;  thus  one  pays  a 
few  pence  at  Hanoi  for  what  one  buys  at  Bangkok, 
Kangoon,  Bombay,  or  Shanghai  for  a  penny.  From 
24,038,000  gross  in  1897  the  production  has  increased 
to  54,802,000  gross  in  1906,  and  of  this  number  38,618,000 
gross  was  exported,  to  the  value  of  10,915,000  yen,  or 
^1,091,500. 

VI 

One  of  the  industries  in  which  the  Japanese  have  been 
equally  successful  is  the  leather  trade.  They  are  beginning 
to  produce,  and  cheaper  than  in  Europe,  all  kinds  of 
leather  goods  :  saddlery,  boots,  trunks,  bags,  in  fact,  all 
the  leather  goods  made  in  Europe.  But  here  again  their 
inferiority  is  palpable  :  they  have  not  the  solidity  and 
durability  of  European  manufacture.  It  is,  as  they  say 
in  Germany,  hillig  aber  schlecht  :  cheap  and  nasty. 


200         THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

The  manufacture  of  leather-paper,  which  the  Japanese 
make  in  imitation  of  that  of  Cordova,  is  most  interesting. 
They  have  been  very  successful  in  this  class  of  manu- 
facture, and  one  sees  beautiful  leather-paper,  ornamented 
with  original  and  artistic  designs  taken  from  the  manu- 
factures of  Insatsukioku  (the  State  printing  and 
stationery  works).  From  2,522,472  yen  in  1900  the 
production  of  leather  has  risen  to  10,882,984  yen  in 
1906.  This  article  is  used  entirely  in  Japan  and  is  not 
exported.  The  principal  centres  of  production  are  : 
Hyogo,  Nara,  Osaka,  Tokyo,  Wakayama,  but  especially 
Osaka  and  Hyogo.  They  use  the  skins  of  cows  and  calves, 
and  also  horses.  In  1906,  7,481  skins  of  cows  and  calves 
were  used  in  the  five  above-mentioned  towns,  and  2,770 
horse-skins. 


VII 

Japan  has  also  wished  to  make  preserved  foods.  They 
tried  first  with  milk  and  sardines,  and  owing  to  the  fact 
that  Japanese  cows  give  very  little  and  poor  milk,  the 
result  is  very  mediocre;  and  also,  as  I  have  already 
pointed  out,  Japan  does  not  produce  the  quality  of  oil 
required  to  preserve  the  sardine,  the  article  sold  as 
"  Sardines  à  l'huile  "  being  detestable.  They  have  also 
tried  the  preserved  beef  and  fruit,  but  there  is  no  chance 
of  these  preparations  competing  with  the  famous  "  corned 
beef"  of  Chicago,  or  with  the  bottled  fruits  of  California 
or  Australia.  Everything  they  make  of  this  kind,  more- 
over, is  consumed  in  the  place  or  exported  to  China. 

The  Japanese  are  great  paper  manufacturers.  This  is 
largely  used  in  Japan  for  all  kinds  of  things,  and  Japanese 
paper,  besides,  is  very  useful  for  serviettes,  handkerchiefs, 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  201 

and  tablecloths.  A  Japanese  man  or  woman  always 
carries  about  with  him  or  her  a  thick  packet  of  soft 
white  sheets  of  paper.  Also  from  ancient  times,  since 
the  manufacture  of  paper  was  made  known  through  the 
medium  of  the  Chinese,  they  have  made  paper  in  Japan. 
Quoting  only  recent  figures,  the  production  of  Japanese 
paper,  which  was  worth  12,261,000  yen  in  1897,  rose  in 
1906  to  15,480,000  yen.  It  has  not  varied  much,  but 
what  has  varied  is  the  production  of  European  paper, 
which  the  Japanese  now  use  for  all  official  documents, 
reports,  books,  journals,  and  of  which  schools  use  an 
ever  increasing  quantity.  It  is  cheaper  than  Japanese 
paper,  and  also  easier  to  write  on  ;  students  of  mathe- 
matics, physical,  and  natural  science,  and  medicine,  &c., 
could  not  use  Japanese  paper.  Thus  from  a  production 
valued  at  2,901,000  yen  in  1897  it  rose  to  14,157,000  yen 
in  1906.  The  principal  European  paper  manufactories 
are  :  Insatsu  Kyoku,  or  imperial  paper  factory  ;  the 
factories  of  Oji,  near  Tokyo  ;  Fujii  Seishi,  Yokkaichi  ; 
the  Mitsubishi  Company  ;  Itagami  (Tokyo)  ;  Nishimari 
Seishi  ;  Senju  Seishi  ;  Kyushu  Seishi. 

Indigo  comes  from  Tokushima,  and  in  1907  produced 
1,702,000  yen. 

Mint  (peppermint)  comes  chiefly  from  Kanagawa  and 
Hyogo;  the  manufacture  produced  245,000  yen  at 
Kanagawa  and  197,869  yen  at  Hyogo  in  1906. 

Besides  the  various  industries  enumerated  above, 
bamboo  objects  to  the  value  of  2,171,000  yen  are  manu- 
factured, fans  1,581,000  yen,  cement  6,111,000  yen,  felt 
hats  1,042,000  yen,  soap  2,764,000  yen.  All  these 
products,  apart  from  those  which  are  essentially  Japanese, 
such  as  bamboo  objects  and  fans,  are  of  very  inferior 
quality. 


202         THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 

VIII 

The  Japanese  Government  directs  and  sets  in  motion 
different  factories  and  arsenals.  The  following  list  may 
be  of  some  interest  : — 

A  printing  office  with  4  machines. 

A  type  foundry  with  2  machines. 

A  paper  factory  with  21  machines. 

A  mint  with  17  machines. 

Tobacco  manufactories  with  52  machines  and  17,000 
workmen. 

The  Tokyo  arsenal  with  207  machines  and  23,000 
workmen. 

The  Osaka  arsenal  with  426  machines  and  28,000 
workmen. 

The  wool  factory  at  Senju  with  15  machines. 

The  arsenal  at  Yokosuka  with  36  machines  |and  3,000 
workmen. 

The  arsenal  at  Kure  with  109  machines  and  more  than 
10,000  workmen. 

The  arsenal  at  Sasebo  with  30  machines  and  1,500 
workmen. 

The  arsenal  at  Maizuru  with  14  machines  and  1,200 
workmen. 

The  powder  mill  of  Shimose  ;  the  dock  of  Takeshiki  ; 
Ominato  dock  ;  Bako  dock  ;  steel  factories  employing 
30,000  workmen  with  28  machines  ;  and  the  manu- 
factory of  railways  at  Shimbashi,  Omiya,  Kobe,  and 
Iwamigawa,  which  employ  altogether  2,000  workmen. 

IX 

Of  industries  acquired  from  the  foreigner,  that  of 
cotton  has  most  quickly  risen  to  success  in  Japan,  and 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  203 

to-day  the  importation  of  cotton  cloth  into  the  country 
has  decreased  in  formidable  proportions.  Thus  in  1887 
Europe  imported  into  the  Japanese  islands  24,630,000 
pounds  of  cotton  ;  in  1906  only  5,652,000  were  imported. 
To-day  Japan  inundates  China  with  cotton  products  of 
all  kinds,  and  so  cheaply  that  it  is  impossible  to  compete 
with  it,  even  in  Germany.  In  the  ports  of  Yangtsie, 
Kiukiang,  Hankow,  Ichang  I  have  bought  Japanese 
socks  at  twopence  halfpenny  a  pair,  Japanese  towels  at  a 
penny  a  piece  !  It  is  true  that  when  one  knows  the 
starvation  wages  of  the  Japanese  factories  one  is  less 
astonished.  All  this  Japanese  imitation  is  execrable,  but 
for  the  Chinese  who  has  not  the  means  to  pay  dear  it  is 
precisely  what  he  wants. 

One  of  the  great  questions  which  agitate  the  European 
economists  is  that  of  knowing  if  Japan  is  going  to 
become  a  dangerous  competitor  from  the  industrial 
point  of  view.  There  have  been  long  dissertations  in 
the  most  important  European  and  American  journals 
and  reviews,  and  "Hippocrates  says  yes  if  Galen  says 
no."  Personally  I  do  not  believe  that  we  need  be  afraid, 
at  least,  for  a  very  long  time,  of  the  industrial  yellow 
peril.  Trade  is  still  in  its  infancy  in  Japan,  and  the 
machine  has  not  yet  supplanted  hand  labour  everywhere  ; 
on  the  contrary,  the  latter  is  most  largely  used.  Apart 
from  cotton  manufactures,  which  are,  however,  still  far 
from  equalling  those  of  Europe,  other  industries  have 
remained  in  many  ways  what  they  were  before.  And 
since  money  is  scarce,  large  capital  is  rare  in  the 
country.  The  Japanese  tries  to  lure  capitalists,  and 
he  makes  many  propaganda  in  publications  on  the 
industries,  commerce,  and  finances  of  the  Empire. 
Many  of  these  publications  are  in  EngHsh,  in  French, 


204  THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

and  in  German,  in  order  to  give  every  facility  to  the 
reader. 

In  reality  the  industrial  and  financial  situation  of  the 
Japanese  Empire  is  far  from  being  what  it  appears  from 
the  reading  of  these  monthly  and  weekly  documents, 
published  by  the  banks,  the  industrial  and  commercial 
societies. 

The  Japanese  makes  great  efforts,  efforts  which  one 
cannot  but  admire,  but  he  requires,  necessarily,  more 
time  to  attain  to  the  high  and  brilliant  position  to  which 
he  aspires. 

As  to  emplojdng  foreign  capital  in  Japanese  affairs, 
it  is  not  yet,  perhaps,  the  moment  for  it  :  we  ought  to 
recognise  that  the  Imperial  Government  facilitates  and 
encourages  this  kind  of  investment,  but  the  people  are 
not  yet  sufficiently  enlightened  in  certain  parts  of  the 
provinces. 

At  Osaka  a  Frenchman  has  installed  a  brush  factory 
which  seems  likely  to  prosper,  but  which,  if  one  can 
believe  late  accounts  of  it,  has  met  with  very  great 
difficulties. 

Another  Frenchman,  in  another  business,  entered  into 
partnership  with  an  old  French  resident,  a  civil  engineer, 
and  brought  capital  with  him.  These  two  Frenchmen 
had  obtained  the  right  of  cultivation  of  an  immense 
forest  in  the  South,  at  Kyushu,  and  they  had  set  up 
machines,  built  houses,  outhouses,  and  shops  ;  French 
workmen  and  foremen  had  been  engaged  ;  in  fact,  every- 
thing went  well  and  seemed  likely  to  prosper.  Two 
Europeans  of  high  position  had  interested  themselves 
in  the  business  and  had  put  capital  into  it.  A  company 
was  formed,  and  there  was  nothing  to  be  done  except  to 
put  it  into  working  order.     The  first  results  announced 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  205 

were  satisfactory,  when  on  June  8,  1908,  a  Japanese 
mob  of  fifteen  hundred  to  two  thousand  men  invaded 
the  premises,  broke  up  the  machines,  set  fire  to  the 
houses,  and  destroyed  everything.  In  this  affair  it  is 
clear  that  one  must  consider  the  ignorance  of  the  poorly 
enlightened  and  badly  educated  mob  entirely  responsible 
for  the  havoc  wrought.  The  authorities  of  the  country 
are  the  first  to  disapprove  of  these  acts  and  to  suffer  from 
them  ;  business  is  ruined  and  capital  lost. 


X 

Although  Japan  has  very  quickly  assimilated  European 
industries,  and  makes  great  progress  in  this  direction 
every  day,  I  do  not  believe,  for  all  that,  as  I  have  already 
remarked,  that  the  West  need  fear  serious  competition 
for  a  long  time.  Moreover,  one  must  consider  that 
Japan  does  not  at  present  know  how  to  put  itself  on 
the  same  rank  with  the  manufacturing  countries  of 
Europe  with  regard  to  the  finish  and  durability  of  its 
productions  ;  and  the  proof  of  it  is  that  for  constructions 
which  it  has  most  at  heart,  and  for  which  strength  is 
required — as,  for  example,  for  warships — it  imports  the 
steel  and  principal  parts  from  Europe  and  America. 

Where  it  will  compete  with  Europe  (and  it  has  done 
so  already),  is  in  China  with  its  cotton  trade.  It  is 
evident  that  neither  Manchester  nor  Bombay  will 
supply  the  Chinese  so  cheaply  with  what  he  wants. 
It  goes  without  saying  that  the  moment  has  not  yet 
come  when  Japan  will  have  the  monopoly  of  the  cotton 
trade  in  China  ;  but  it  has  already  begun  by  ousting 
English  productions  from  Manchuria,  and  it  is  known 
that   the   market   of  Shanghai  has  suffered  much  from 


206 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 


competition  in  Japanese  stuffs  and  threads,  and  numbers 
of  European  houses  have  found  themselves  in  a  difficult 
position.  For  the  time  being  it  is  in  this  direction  that 
the  Japanese  industrial  and  commercial  efforts  are 
directed. 

The  métallurgie  industry  will  have  its  turn  also  with- 
out doubt,  but  for  the  moment  it  has  not  yet  attained 
to  the  zenith  of  its  existence.  In  order  to  arrive  at  the 
colossal  development  which  the  manufacture  of  metals 
has  acquired  in  Europe  and  the  United  States,  time  and 
money  are  necessary. 

One  need  only  consult  figures  to  realise  that  Japan 
is  far  behind  all  the  metal-producing  countries.  Thus  the 
factory  of  Wakamatsu,  directed  by  the  Government, 
produces  hundreds  of  thousands  of  tons  of  cast-iron, 
while  France,  which  produces  least  of  all  the  great 
industrial  States,  produces  4,000,000  tons  more  ;  and 
Germany  alone,  without  bringing  England  and  the 
United  States  into  the  question,  produces  about 
12,000,000  tons  of  the  same  metal.  Thus  there  is  a 
good  margin.  The  following  is  a  table  of  the  average 
wages  of  every  class  of  workman  per  day  : — 


Carpenters 

Plasterers     

Stone-cutters 

Beapers 

Slaters  and  thatchers 

Tilers 

Bricklayers 

Brickmakers 

Mat  -  makers     and 

plaiters      

Screen-makers 
Paperhangers 
Joiners  


Per 

Yen. 

Day. 
Sen. 

...  0 

60 

...  0 

60 

...  0 

66 

...  0 

59 

...  0 

55 

...  0 

65 

...  0 

75 

...  0 

55 

straw- 

...  0 

51 

...  0 

55 

...  0 

56 

...  0 

55 

Per  Day. 

Yen.  Sen. 


Coopers         

Makers    of    wooden    shoes 

and  goloshes       

Shoe  and  boot  makers 
Saddlers,  harness-makers... 

Wheelwrights  

Tailors  of  Japanese  clothes 

,,       ,,  European      ,, 
Makers    of     snuff   -   boxes, 

tobacco-pouches,    purses, 

pocket-books,  &c. 

Dyers 

Cotton  thrashers     


0     45 


0  42 

0  67 

0  62 

0  51 

0  47 

0  64 


0  57 
0  32 
0    41 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 


207 


Per  Day. 

Per  Day. 

Yen. 

Sen. 

Yen.  Sen. 

Blacksmiths 

...     0 

55 

Farm  labourers 

[women)  ... 

0     20 

Jewellers       

...     0 

52 

Breeders        of 

silkworms 

Makers  of  metal  utensils  ...     0 

53 

(men) 

0     29 

Pottery  makers 

...     0 

46 

Breeders       of 

silkworms 

Makers  of  lacquer  ware     ...     0 

49 

(women)     ... 

0    23 

Varnishers 

...     0 

38 

Makers    of    textile    fabrics 

Oil  pressers 

...     0 

42 

(men) 

... 

0    34 

Paper  makers 

...     0 

32 

Makers    of    textile    fabrics 

Tobacco  cutters 

...     0 

54 

(women)    ... 

0     18 

Compositors 

...     0 

42 

Silk  spinners 

0    22 

Printers         

...     0 

38 

Confectioners 

0    34 

Ship's  carpenters    .. 

...     0 

64 

Fishermen    ... 

0    42 

Gardeners 

...     0 

55 

Rice  washers 

0    32 

Farm  labourers  (men 

)        ...     0 

32 

Labourers     ... 

0    43 

Per  Month. 

Per  Month 

Yen. 

Sen. 

Yen.  Sen. 

Makers  of  rice-alcohc 

)l(sake)  10 

37 

Servants 

... 

3     22 

„      ..     .,       shoyi 

1        ...     7 

16 

Maid-servants 

... 

1     79 

Per  Year.  Per  Year. 

Yen.  Sen.  Yen.  Sen. 

Farm  labourers  (men)       ...  37    54  |  Farm  labourers  (women)  ...  20    13 

The  yen  being  the  equivalent  of  about  2  shilHngs 
English  money,  a  farm  labourer  is  paid  about  £3  16s. 
and  a  woman  about  £2  wages  per  year.  When  we 
consider  these  wages,  the  heaviness  of  taxes,  the  military 
expenses  out  of  proportion  to  the  financial  resources 
of  the  country,  we  cannot  be  astonished  at  the  misery 
which  reigns  in  Japan. 


XI 

The  encouragement  and  protection  given  to  industrial 
enterprise  and  to  manufacturing  concerns  do  not  date 
from  the  present  time. 

Even  before  the  Imperial  Kestoration,  the  three 
Daimyos,  or  territorial  lords  of  Satsuma,  Mito,  and  Saga, 
had  established   in  the  era    of    Kayei  (1848-1853)   an 


208         THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 

arsenal  in  the  European  style,  and  begun  to  cast  cannon. 
The  Daimyo  of  Satsuma,  inspired  by  the  Dutch  manu- 
facture, had  set  up  a  porcelain  factory,  and  in  1861  he  had 
even  imported  from  England  machines  for  spinning.  The 
Daimyo  of  Mito,  on  his  side,  had  set  up  at  Ishikawajima 
(an  island  at  the  mouth  of  the  Sumida,in  the  Bay  of  Tokyo) 
a  dockyard  for  the  construction  of  ships  ;  the  Shogun 
Tokugawa,  during  the  Ansei  era  (1864-1859),  had  like- 
wise set  up  a  dockyard  like  that  at  Akuura  (Hizen) 
and  another  also  at  Yokosuka  (Sagami)  ;  but  this  last 
was  only  completed  after  the  Imperial  Kestoration  ;  it 
was,  moreover,  ceded  to  the  marine  department,  and  it 
became  one  of  the  principal  building  and  repairing 
works  in  the  Japanese  naval  war.  It  was  the  Mitsu- 
bishi Company  which,  in  1884,  took  possession  of  the 
docks  of  Hizen,  which  it  still  holds  to-day,  and  which 
are  known  by  the  name  of  the  Docks  of  Naval  Con- 
struction of  Nagasaki. 

The  movement,  originated  by  the  feudal  princes  and 
Shoguns,  was  carried  on  by  the  Imperial  Government. 
A  silk-spinning  factory,  set  up  according  to  modern 
principles,  was  installed  at  Tomioka  in  1872,  under 
the  direction  of  Monsieur  Brunat,  assisted  by  French 
foremen  and  workmen  ;  then,  in  1877,  another  spin- 
ning-mill for  waste  silk  was  opened  at  Shinmachi. 
A  wool-spinning  mill  was  opened  soon  after  at  Senji, 
a  suburb  of  Tokyo,  at  Government  expense,  and  ten 
years  after  this  official  example,  wool  factories  were 
set  up  by  private  societies  at  different  points  of  the 
territory. 

In  1881  and  1883,  in  the  districts  of  Aïchi  and 
Hiroshima,  the  Government  imported  from  England 
machines  for  cotton   weaving  ;     then  the   weaving  of 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE  209 

hemp  began  to  be  developed  at  Hokkaido  (Yezo),  where 
the  Government  installed  foremen  and  workmen  from 
Lille.  In  1875  a  cement  factory  was  set  up  at 
Fukagawa  (a  suburb  of  Tokyo),  and,  in  1876,  the  first 
glassworks  made  its  appearance  at  Shinagawa  (another 
suburb  of  Tokyo). 

However,  beside  these  different  establishments  built 
and  directed  at  the  State  expense,  other  private  estab- 
lishments were  started,  directed  by  societies  and  com- 
panies. When  the  impetus  was  thus  given,  the  Imperial 
Government  gradually  got  rid  of  these  works,  and  sold 
all  its  manufactories,  keeping  only  the  cloth  works  of 
Senji,  where  they  make  cloth  for  the  troops. 

When  one  sees  in  how  few  years  the  Japanese  has 
arrived  at  the  degree  of  industrial  activity  which  he 
shows  to-day,  one  cannot  help  recognising  his  extreme 
aptitude  for  imitation,  his  capacity  for  work  ;  and 
although  all  the  European  articles  he  produces  are 
very  inferior  to  those  which  are  made  in  Europe,  one 
must  admit  that  he  has  great  skilfulness  and  a  great 
reserve  of  patience. 

In  order  to  be  able  to  advance  without  the  aid  of 
Europeans,  it  was  necessary  to  have  a  staff  of  well- 
trained  and  enlightened  engineers.  This  the  Imperial 
Government  understood  at  once,  and  about  1871  it 
established  the  higher  college  of  engineers  (Ko  bu  dai 
gakkô),  under  the  direction  of  English  professors  (to-day 
this  college  is  attached  to  the  University  of  Tokyo). 

There  they  were  taught  mechanics,  shipbuilding,  the 
science  of  electricity,  architecture,  chemistry,  all  science 
in  general  necessary  to  the  engineering  profession,  be  it 
civil  engineering  or  mine  engineering,  or  electric.  There 
came  out  from  these  establishments  well  trained  young 

14 


210         THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

men,  of  whom  the  most  distinguished  went  to  continue 
their  studies  in  France,  England,  Germany,  or  the 
United  States. 

In  1881,  the  Polytechnic  at  Tokyo  was  established, 
where  they  were  taught  painting,  weaving,  ceramics, 
&c.  Similar  schools  were  opened  almost  everywhere  by 
the  provincial  authorities,  so  that  to-day  in  Tokyo, 
Kyoto,  and  Osaka  one  counts  three  higher  schools  of 
engineering,  and  in  the  provinces  one  finds  more  than 
twelve  hundred  technical  schools.  At  the  present  time, 
apart  from  some  rare  exceptions,  European  instructors 
have  disappeared. 

To  this  account  of  Japanese  industries  I  would  add 
that  the  Japanese  Government  has  enacted  laws  and 
regulations  relating  to  patents  and  trade  marks  ;  but  it  is 
a  matter  which  is  not  of  much  account  in  the  country, 
and  the  trade  marks  are  still  to-day  outrageously  and 
unskilfully  imitated. 


CHAPTEE  XIV 


I.  Japan's  foreign  trade  :  habutai,  kaiki,  silk  factories — II.  Tea  export — 
III.  Rice  export — IV.  Japanese  coal — V.  Brass — VI.  Camphor,  mat- 
ting, rice-alcohol,  cigarettes — VII.  Cotton^VIII.  Imports  :  Eaw 
cotton,  woollen  goods,  wool  muslin  ;  the  position  of  France  in  relation 
to  the  import  of  this  last  article  ;  rice  from  Indo-China  ;  metals  ; 
machines — IX.  French  imports — X.  The  Japanese  merchant — XI. 
Import  and  export  duties  for  the  principal  ports — XII.  Japanese 
steam  merchant  service — XIII.  French  vessels — XIV.  Custom  duties. 


Japan's  foreign  commerce  consists  largely  of  silk 
exports  :  raw  silk,  which  is  sent  to  the  United  States, 
France  and  Italy  ;  silk  waste,  which  is  scarcely  bought 
except  by  France  ;  habutai,  which  goes  to  France,  to 
the  United  States,  England,  British  India,  Australia  ; 
pongé,  glacé,  or  kaiki,  bought  by  the  United  States  ;  and 
lastly,  silk  handkerchiefs,  which  are  sent  to  the  United 
States  and  England.  The  habutai,  or  pongé,  is  manu- 
factured chiefly  in  the  six  provinces  of  Japan,  which 
are,  roughly  speaking,  the   places  for  silk  manufacture. 

Echizen,  the  capital  of  which  is  Fukui,  is  the  centre 
of  the  trade  and  the  place  of  inspection  of  the  textile 
fabrics  after  the  operation  of  ungumming. 

By  reason  of  the  importance  of  the  transactions,  and 
the  little  confidence  it  is  possible  to  place  in  the  inter- 
mediate merchants,  especially  with  regard  to  contracts, 
which  they  accept  and  which  they  do  not  carry  out,  if 

211 


212         THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

their  market  price  becomes  unfavourable,  a  certain 
number  of  European  houses  have  their  ov^n  factories 
at  Fukui,  and  carry  out  their  own  transactions.  The 
fabrics  are  offered  for  sale  by  public  auction,  taking 
place  daily,  and  in  several  parts  of  the  town.  They 
naturally  become  the  property  of  the  highest  bidder. 
The  market  price  undergoes  frequent  changes,  showing 
easily  enough  the  relation  between  supply  and  demand. 

The  number  of  looms  existing  in  Fukui  and  in  the 
suburbs  was  19,959  at  the  end  of  December,  1904,  and 
the  production,  from  July  1,  1904,  to  June  30,  1905,  was 
about  1,200,000  pieces,  say  an  average  of  60  pieces  per 
loom  during  a  period  of  twelve  months. 

One  may  say  that  at  the  height  of  the  season  4,000  or 
5,000  pieces  are  put  every  day  on  the  market,  and  thanks 
to  the  special  organisations  of  local  banks  consenting  to 
generous  advances  on  manufactured  fabrics  which  are 
delivered  to  them  as  security,  payments  can  be  made 
in  cash,  and,  so  to  speak,  at  the  same  moment  as  the 
merchandise  passes  into  other  hands.  Similar  organisa- 
tions also  exist  in  other  provinces. 

The  district  of  Kaga,  the  capital  of  which  is  Kana- 
zawa,  an  important  town  of  more  than  200,000  in- 
habitants, only  manufactures  flimsy  materials,  and  more 
than  half  of  its  production  is  destined  for  the  United 
States  of  America,  which,  by  reason  of  the  high  custom 
duties,  requires  more  especially  light  fabrics. 

The  best  manufactured  articles  attain  a  very  high  price, 
compared  with  the  others,  by  reason  of  these  American 
purchases,  where  fabrics  of  ordinary  quality  only  find  a 
poor  sale.  One  understands,  then,  that  the  weavers  do 
their  utmost  to  keep  up  the  quality  and  improve  their 
manufacture,  which  is  in  a  general  way  attended  to. 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  213 

The  province  of  Kaga  numbers  14,500  looms,  and  the 
production  has  been  from  about  750,000  pieces  from  1904 
to  1905. 

Toyama,  in  the  province  of  Etchu,  is  a  centre  of  manu- 
facture of  medium  importance  ;  there  are  5,500  looms 
v^ith  an  annual  production  of  150,000  pieces  ;  Uzen  1,200 
looms  ;  annual  production  42,000  pieces. 

The  textiles  manufactured  in  the  province  of  Kawa- 
mata  have  acquired  a  bad  reputation  in  recent  years, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  in  most  cases  they  add  weight 
to  them  after  the  process  of  ungumming.  In  order  to 
attain  this  end,  they  leave  them  in  a  bath  of  magnesia, 
the  increase  of  weight  varying  in  proportion  to  the  dura- 
tion of  the  operation.  In  this  way  they  add  to  the 
weight  of  the  fabrics  more  than  40  per  cent,  of  the 
weight  of  pure  silk. 

This  treatment  does  not  add  to  the  quality  of  the 
material  ;  on  the  contrary,  it  completely  does  away  with 
its  brightness  and  fulfils  no  object  but  to  deceive  the 
purchaser.  Such  proceedings  were  not  long  in  injuring 
the  progress  of  trade  in  this  region  ;  and  its  production 
was  almost  abandoned  when  the  provincial  Government, 
realising  the  gravity  of  the  situation,  decreed  in 
November,  1904,  that  on  and  after  April  1,  1905,  only 
unadulterated  goods  should  be  sold.  Severe  measures 
having  been  adopted,  the  new  regulations  are  now 
strictly  observed. 

The  province  of  Kawamata  numbers  5,300  looms  with 
a  relatively  important  production  of  260,000  pieces. 

Joshu  was  the  birthplace  of  habutai.  It  was  there,  in 
fact,  that  some  pieces  of  a  similar  article,  made  in  China, 
were  for  the  first  time  imitated  in  Japan  about  twenty- 
five  years  ago,  and  the  other  provinces,  in  view  of  the 


214  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

demand,  gradually  learned  the  processes  employed  by 
their  neighbours,  and,  in  modifying  them  according  to 
their  capacity,  succeeded  in  originating  this  important 
industry. 

Joshu  is  at  the  same  time  a  very  important  centre 
for  the  manufacture  of  silk  material  used  for  Japanese 
kimonos. 

Without  taking  account  of  looms  used  for  this  latter, 
there  exist  in  this  region  :  503  looms  for  plain  material, 
annual  production  15,000  pieces  ;  800  looms  for  made-up 
habutai,  annual  production  40,000  pieces  ;  2,000  looms 
for  silk  goods,  annual  production  60,000  pieces. 

Kyoto  and  Gifu  produce  an  equal  amount  of  silk 
stuffs,  of  which  only  a  small  quantity  is  exported,  nine- 
tenths  (about)  being  destined  for  home  consumption. 

At  Gifu  weaving  is  confined  to  crêpe  de  chine, 
while  at  Kyoto  they  make  stuffs  of  all  kinds,  from 
taffetas  to  grand  striped  or  flowered  gold  and  silver 
materials. 

It  is  at  Kyoto  that  one  finds  the  only  large  factory 
worth  mentioning  ;  it  is  an  anonymous  society  with  a 
capital  of  £100,000,  and  possesses  275  mechanical  looms 
and  100  hand  looms,  as  well  as  all  the  machines  for 
winding,  taking  up,  warping,  folding,  glossing,  &c.  Its 
factories  for  dyeing  thread,  pieces,  and  trimming,  and 
everything  in  general  which  is  used  in  this  industry,  assure 
it  a  complete  independence,  and  help  to  place  it  in  the 
first  rank  among  establishments  of  this  kind  existing 
outside  Europe  and  America.* 

For  the  year  1908  the  export  of  silk  was  to  the  value 
of  £9,040,000  as  compared  with  £11,040,000  in  1907; 
there  was  an  equally  serious  diminution  in  habutai. 

*  Commercial  and  Consular  Reports,  1905. 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  215 

In  other  respects  the  total  commerce  of  Japan  for  1908 
suffered  a  diminution  of  .£11,295,000. 
Table  of  silk  exports  since  1904  : — 

Yen. 

1904   138,300,000 

1905   113,460,000 

1906   157,955,000 

1907   160,237,000 


II 

Tea  is  also  one  of  the  exports  of  Japan  ;  but  the  whole 
amount  is  absorbed  by  the  United  States.  Japanese  tea 
does  not  in  any  way  resemble  Chinese  tea,  and  generally 
Europeans  do  not  appreciate  it.  It  is  green  ;  it  has  a 
bitter  taste.  The  Japanese  consume  a  great  deal  ;  it  is 
their  customary  beverage.  Outside  Japan,  America  alone 
consumes  Japanese  tea  :  it  was  exported — 

Yen. 

In  1904  to  the  value  of 12,833,000 

„  1905    „    „   10,584,000 

,,1906    „    „    10,767,000 

,,  1907        „         „         10,618,000 

From  1896  to  1903  an  annual  subsidy  of  70,000  yen 
was  accorded  by  the  Government  to  the  "  Tea 
Syndicate,"  which  had  tried  to  compete  with  Ceylon  tea, 
by  treating  Japanese  tea  with  certain  preparations  so  as 
to  make  it  fit  to  be  exported  into  Europe  ;  but  the 
venture  was  not  successful,  and  the  subsidy  was  with- 
drawn in  1903.  In  that  year  the  Government  again 
granted  a  subsidy  of  35,000  yen,  then  it  stopped  all 
pecuniary  help.  Japanese  tea  could  never  compete  with 
Chinese   or   Ceylon   tea  ;   this    is  probably   due    to  the 


216  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

climate,  which  gives  it  this  special  flavour,  little  appreci- 
ated by  Europeans,  even  by  those  who  have  lived  in  the 
country  for  a  long  time. 


Ill 

Japanese  rice  is  one  of  the  best  species  of  rice  grown 
on  the  face  of  the  globe.  They  export  a  certain  quantity 
of  it.  The  principal  markets  for  Japanese  rice  are  : 
Australia,  which  consumes  it  to  the  value  of  about 
2,000,000  yen;  Hawaii,  8,000,000  yen  ;  England,  800,000 
yen  ;  Korea,  5,000,000  yen  ;  Asiatic  Eussia,  a  very  vari- 
able quantity— in  1903,  445,765  yen  ;  in  1904, 17,621  yen  ; 
in  1905,  306,025  yen  ;  in  1906,  472,870  yen. 

The  demand  of  the  United  States  has  been  decreasing 
lately,  which  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  cultivation 
of  rice  in  Texas  has  extended  largely  and  has  been  most 
successful,  as  it  has  been  in  Louisiana.  In  reality,  rice 
reaped  in  these  two  States  is  sold  cheaper  than  Japanese 
rice,  and  Japanese  settled  in  California  themselves  eat 
American  rice. 

Sometimes  the  crops  in  Japan  are  not  sufficient,  and 
the  Government  is  obliged  to  import  rice,  say  from 
Bangkok,  or  Saigon,  or  Eangoon  ;  but  generally  the  rice 
from  these  countries  is  little  appreciated  in  Japan  ;  the 
grains  are  smaller,  and  they  are  much  less  white  when 
cooked. 

In  1908  the  crops  were  very  good;  they  reached,  in 
fact,  51,897,233  koku,  or  259,486,165  bushels.  They  were 
exceptionally  good,  better  even  than  those  of  the  year 
1904,  which  had  been  considered  the  best  harvest  known 
in  Japan,  and  which  rose  to  51,401,497  koku,  or  257,007,485 
bushels. 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  217 

This  table  shows  the  export  of  Japanese  rice  for  the 
three  years  1906,  1907,  1908  (in  kokiis)  :— 


Country. 

1006. 

1907. 

1908. 

... 

03,583 

296,460 

113,379 

Hong-Kong     

1,3G5 

— 

— 

Korea 

57,877 

63,647 

63,372 

Asiatic  Russia 

472,870 

253,809 

155,205 

England           

416,179 

230,374 

626,681 

France 

58,352 

14,089 

415 

Germany         

35,834 

746 

168,206 

Belgium          

92,871 

— 

— 

Austria  Hungary 

57,363 

— 

— 

Holland           

25,536 

— 

— 

United  States... 

463,016 

744,556 

410,892 

Dominion  of  Canada... 

288,050 

532,708 

356,230 

Australia         

274,701 

139,039 

78,542 

Hanoï 

928,975 

1,375,729 

1,364,057 

IV 

The  export  of  coal  is  always  on  the  increase  ;  from 
14,828,000  yen  in  1904,  it  has  risen  to  16,280,000  yen  in 
1906,  and  to  19,052,000  yen  in  1907.  Japanese  coal  is 
actually  exported  in  small  quantities  into  all  the  Asiatic 
ports  ;  however,  it  is  not  utilisable  in  the  pure  state,  and 
steamships,  especially  warships,  only  use  very  little  and 
mixed  with  Cardiff  coal.  Japanese  coal  heats  boilers, 
and  produces  an  intense,  very  black  smoke.  It  is  used  in 
the  form  of  compressed  briquettes,  and  in  this  form  it 
seems  to  be  useful,  but  it  will  never  replace  English  coal, 
and  all  the  warships,  including  the  Japanese  men-of- 
war,  as  well  as  the  great  steamship  companies,  avoid 
using  Japanese  coal. 

The  export  of  this  product  is  as  follows  :  to  China, 
7,689,000  yen  in  1907  ;  to  British  India,  368,000  yen  in 
1907  ;  to  Hong-Kong,  5,439,000  yen  in  1907  ;  and  to  the 
Dutch  Colonies  in  the  Malay  Peninsula,  430,000  yen  in 


218  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

1907.  The  United  States  of  America  represent  a  sum  of 
1,163,000  yen  in  1907  ;  but  it  is  probable  that  this  figure 
represents  coal  brought  into  the  ports  from  California, 
for  the  use  of  Japanese  vessels  sailing  from  San  Francisco 
to  Seattle. 


Japan  is,  with  the  United  States,  the  greatest  pro- 
ducer of  copper,  and  its  production  tends  to  increase 
constantly.  In  1902  it  was  28,015  tons  ;  in  1903  it 
increased  to  32,436  tons,  and  in  1904  the  production  was 
estimated  at  35,000  tons.  The  increase  continued  to 
1907  and  1908,  when  it  reached  38,000  and  39,000  tons. 
The  total  production  for  1898  gave  a  market  value  of 
26,302,000  yen. 

With  regard  to  export,  China  alone  absorbed,  in  1907, 
10,310,000  yen  of  copper  ;  Hong-Kong,  4,782,000  yen  ; 
England,  4,514,000  yen;  France,  2,364,000  yen;  Ger- 
many, 2,309,000  yen.  The  export  of  this  metal,  which 
produced  a  total  of  25,110,000  yen  in  1906,  rose  to 
29,260,000  yen  in  1907— that  is,  an  increase  of  4,150,000 
yen.  In  1908  it  appreciably  diminished  ;  that  year, 
besides,  was  very  bad  for  Japan  from  the  commercial 
point  of  view,  as  I  remarked  at  the  opening  of  this 
chapter. 

VI 

Formerly,  Japan  properly  speaking  produced  a  great 
deal  of  camphor  ;  but  to-day  the  territory  of  the  Empire 
hardly  produces  any,  and  the  island  of  Formosa  exports 
most  of  this  commodity.  There  was  exported  (fiscal 
year  1907-1908)  as  much  from  Japan  as  from  Formosa, 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 


219 


to  the  value  of  7,945,000  yen  ;  of  this  sum  2,919,000  yen 
accrued  to  Formosa,  which,  one  sees,  exports  relatively 
more  than  Japan,  considering  its  size. 

These    are    the    countries    which    have    bought 
most  : — 


the 


Yen. 

British  India 

1,069,000 

Great  Britain 

158,000 

France   

604,000 

Germany           

1,301,000 

United  States 

1,689,000 

Matting. — Formerly  Japanese  matting  had  no  opposi- 
tion in  the  whole  of  the  Far  East,  by  reason  of  its 
fineness  and  the  care  bestowed  on  its  manufacture  ;  the 
quality  has  deteriorated  considerably  to-day,  and  the 
exportation  shows  it.  The  Japanese  proceeds  in  the 
same  way  in  everything,  and  it  is  difficult  now  to  pro- 
cure as  carefully  made  goods  as  formerly.  In  matting, 
competition  is  making  itself  felt  in  a  small  degree,  and 
if  the  manufacturers  of  matting  at  Namdinh  persevere, 
they  will  certainly  succeed  in  ousting  Japanese  matting 
completely. 

Matting  from  Tonkin  is  competing  so  much  with 
Japanese  matting,  that  Japanese  merchants  at  Hong- 
Kong  and  on  the  Chinese  coast,  as  well  as  in  the  United 
States,  are  selling  Tonkin  matting  for  Japanese  matting. 
It  is  the  United  States  which  absorb  the  greater  part 
of  this  product  :  every  year  they  buy  goods  to  the  value 
of  almost  6,000,000  yen. 

Matches. — The  match  trade  always  prospers,  and  is 
valued  at  between  10,000,000  yen  and  11,000,000  yen. 
China,  Hong-Kong,  the  Straits  Settlements,  Korea,  are 
the  greatest  purchasers  ;  Siam,  Burmah,  and  British 
India  follow  next  in  succession. 


220  THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

In  1907-1908  China  has  bought  matches  to  the  value 
of  4,250,000  yen. 

Yen. 

British  India 849,000 

Hong-Kong       2,469,000 

Korea      2,000,000  (about) 

Straits  Settlements 1,000,000 

It  is  one  of  the  principal  Japanese  articles  of  export  in 
the  countries  of  the  Far  East,  and  the  import  trade  of 
European  matches  has  become  insignificant  owing  to 
this  fact. 

Sake. — Japanese  rice-alcohol  is  scarcely  exported  any- 
where but  to  Korea  and  China  ;  or  rather  it  would  be 
better  to  say  it  was  exported  at  the  time  of  the  Manchurian 
campaign  ;  to-day,  as  the  Japanese  have  regained  posses- 
sion, the  export  tends  to  diminish  ;  however,  it  continues 
in  these  two  countries  to  the  value  of  800,000  yen  to 
1,000,000  yen. 

Porcelain  and  Pottery. — It  is  the  United  States  which 
buy  most  of  these  articles  from  Japan.  On  a  total  of 
7,942,927  yen  in  1906,  and  7,216,000  yen  in  1907,  they 
have  taken  up  nearly  4,000,000  yen  each  year  (in  1906 
exactly  4,332,584  yen,  and  in  1907  3,816,000  yen).  China 
comes  next,  then  Korea,  and  last  England  and  Hong- 
Kong.  France  only  buys  from  Japan  about  110,000  yen 
worth  of  porcelain,  while  Germany  buys  450,000  yen 
worth. 

Cigarettes  are  only  exported  into  China  and  Korea  : 
China,  1,228,000  yen  worth  in  1907;  in  Korea,  in  the  same 
year,  800,000  yen  ;  but  it  is  likely  that  this  article  of 
export  will  fall  rapidly,  for  the  Chinese  have  begun  to 
manufacture  cigarettes  exactly  like  Japanese  cigarettes, 
and  Chinese  smokers  buy  them  in  preference. 

Maritime  Products. — Cuttlefish,  sea-spades,   vegetable 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE 


221 


glue,  and  seaweed  go  mostly  to  China  and  Hong-Kong. 
This  last  port  buys  about  2,000,000  yen  of  cuttlefish,  and 
China  the  same  value  of  seaweed. 


VII 

Cotton,  from  every  point  of  view,  is  one  of  the  great 
exports  of  Japan,  and  China  buys  up  most  of  it,  a  portion 
going  to  Hong-Kong  and  Korea.  Thread,  blanketing, 
flannels,  crêpe.  Nankin,  grey  shirting,  towels,  and 
serviettes,  all  go  to  the  Chinese  market  ;  the  latter  takes 
as  a  rule  from  30,000,000  yen  to  35,000,000  yen  for 
thread  every  year,  and  from  3,000,000  yen  to  4,000,000 
yen  for  grey  shirting.  Bath  towelling  is  beginning  to  be 
much  appreciated  by  the  Chinese,  especially  as  the  price 
is  very  low  ;  they  pay  for  an  ordinary  towel  about  500 
or  600  piastres,  about  three-halfpence. 

The  principal  exporters  of  cotton  are  the  following 
spinning-mills  : — 

Osaka  Boseki  with   1,110   workmen  and  4,500  women. 


Setsu 

,      1,300 

4,000 

Osaka  Godo 

,      1,000 

4,000 

Fukushima 

450 

1,500 

Nihon 

420 

2,000 

Tcmma 

40 

205 

Nagai 

300 

1,200 

Odzu  Hoseito 

180 

800 

Kobayashi 

40 

110 

Sakai 

200 

770 

Kishiwada 

250 

1,110 

Wakayama 

280 

1,500 

Koriyama 

880 

900 

Amagasaki 

270 

1,250 

All  the  above-mentioned  mills  belong  to  the  region  of 
Osaka;  of  the  35,000,000  yen  exportation  they  number 
28,000,000  yen  to  29,000,000  yen  ;  that  is  to  say,  that  the 
cotton  trade  is  concentrated  in  the  two  towns  of  Kobe 


222  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

and  Osaka  and  the  surrounding  regions.  It  is  evident 
that  the  Japanese  will  end  by  furnishing  the  whole  of  the 
Chinese  market  with  the  cotton  which  it  requires.  The 
proximity  of  the  country,  the  very  cheap  hand  labour, 
the  few  requirements  of  the  Japanese,  make  it  impossible 
for  European  cotton  in  all  its  forms  to  compete  with  it  ; 
evidently  the  Japanese  product  is  very  inferior,  but  that 
is  not  the  point  with  the  Chinese  purchaser  ;  cheapness 
is  necessary  for  him,  even  if  the  quality  is  not  of  the 
best. 

VIII 

For  importation,  Japan  requires  first  of  all  raw  cotton 
for  its  spinning-mills. 

It  gets  this  from  China  for  an  average  sum  of  25,000,000 
yen  to  30,000,000  yen  (24  to  3  million  pounds)  (in  1904  it 
was  30,678,242  yen,  in  1907  23,465,000  yen)  ; 

From  British  India,  which  has  always  occupied  the  first 
place  in  the  importation  of  this  article  into  Japan  (except 
for  an  eclipse  in  1904),  and  which  has  supplied  during  the 
last  few  years,  in  1905,  53,553,000  yen;  1906,  41,383,000 
yen;  1907,  57,574,000  yen; 

From  the  United  States,  which  import  to  the  value  of 
28,000,000  yen  to  30,000,000  yen; 

From  Egypt,  which  supplies  3,000,000  yen  to 
4,000,000   yen. 

Soft  raw  cotton,  in  pods  or  not  in  pods — raw  material, 
in  a  word — is  on  the  increase  as  an  import  ;  it  is  evidently 
a  sign  of  the  activity  of  the  Japanese  mills. 

As  to  other  products  made  from  cotton,  Japan  imports 
less  than  formerly,  since  it  makes  them  itself.  Neverthe- 
less, it  still  buys  threads,  ticking,  linen,  printed  linen, 
satin,  velvet,  grey  shirting,  double-milled  shirtings,  and 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE  223 

waterproof  cloth.  It  is  England  which  supplies  almost 
exclusively  the  last-mentioned  article. 

Woollen  goods,  raw  wool,  threads,  Italian  cloth, 
delaine,  cloth,  cotton  cloth,  counterpanes,  are  imported 
to  the  value  of  £2,000,000. 

England,  Australia,  and  Germany  are  the  chief  im- 
porters, France  has  for  a  long  time  had  the  monopoly  of 
the  importation  of  wool  muslin  ;  it  imported  1,235,000 
yen  worth  in  1901  ;  2,315,000  yen  in  1903  ;  1,175,000 
yen  in  1905  ;  but  the  figures  fell  in  1907  to  478,000  yen. 
German  competition,  and,  above  all,  Swiss,  is  the  cause  of 
this  decline  in  the  French  muslin  trade  ;  but  they  must 
blame  also  the  indolence  of  their  manufacturers,  who  never 
send  travellers  to  study  seriously  the  tastes  of  their  clients 
and  the  changes  to  make  in  their  products. 

Eice. — In  spite  of  the  good  years  of  harvest  which  it 
generally  enjoys,  Japan  imports  rice.  This  is  because  the 
Japanese,  knowing  the  superiority  of  their  rice,  keep  it  in 
order  to  export  it  when  prices  are  high,  and  eat  less  good 
tropical  rice  themselves  :  thus  it  is  that  India  sends  to 
Japan  13,000,000  yen  to  15,000,000  yen  worth  of  rice 
(coming  almost  entirely  from  Eangoon,  Burmah);  French 
Indo-China  almost  the  same  value,  and  Siam  about 
5,000,000  yen. 

Sugar. — Dutch  India  imports  16,000,000  yen  to 
17,000,000  yen  (in  1907,  16,691,000  yen)  ;  China,  600,000 
yen;  the  Philippine  Islands,  1,000,000  yen  (in  1907 
1,218,000  yen).  The  above  applies  to  raw  sugar;  refined 
sugar  comes  from  : — 

Yen. 

Eussia  (about)  2,000,000 

Hong-Kong      1,500,000 

Germany  1,000,000 

Austria-Hungary        1,000,000 


224         THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

Metals. — Metallurgy  has  much  to  hope  for  as  an 
import  into  Japan;  the  Japanese  mines  are  still  very 
insufficiently  worked,  and  there  is  a  lack  of  capital  with 
which  to  set  up  the  great  métallurgie  industry  as  in 
Europe  ;  it  is  true  Japan  actually  makes  in  the  foundry 
of  Wakamatsu  and  in  the  arsenal  of  Kure  material  for 
war  and  projectiles  ;  but  it  is  still  dependent  on  Europe 
and  America  for  wrought  metal. 

Iron  ingots  :  Japan  has  imported  £1,485,600  worth 
from  England  in  1907;  £317,600  from  Germany: 
£116,200  from  the  United  States;  £697,300  from 
Belgium.  Kails  :  in  1907  from  England,  £48,300  ;  from 
Germany,  £157,900  ;  from  the  United  States,  £137,100  ; 
from  Belgium,  £37,200.  Bars  of  iron,  iron  plates,  and 
sheet  iron,  iron  pipes,  nails,  tinfoil,  telegraph  wires,  steel, 
lead,  tin,  zinc  ;  all  these  kinds  of  metals  find  a  ready 
market  in  Japan. 

Machines  and  locomotives  in  1907  were  imported  : — 


From  England,       value £1,638,000 

„     Germany,          „  £333,300 

„     Belgium,           „  £16,800 

,,     United  States  „  £1,024,100 


Petroleum  comes  almost  entirely  from  the  United 
States,  which  imports  it  every  year  to  the  value  of  about 
10,000,000  yen  (in  1907,  9,507,000  yen). 

Coal  is  imported  from  England  for  the  Japanese  navy. 
In  1904,  when,  on  account  of  the  war,  Japan  bought  in 
large  supplies,  it  imported  coal  to  the  value  of  12,199,885 
yen  from  Cardiff;  but  at  ordinary  times  it  is  not  the 
same,  and  in  1905  the  import  fell  to  5,467,705  yen, 
remaining  finally  at  about  500,000  yen. 

Thus  everything  connected  with  metallurgy  is  imported 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  225 

from  England,  Germany,  Belgium,  the  United  States. 
As  to  France,  it  imported  in  1907  about  410,000  yen 
worth  of  machines. 


IX 

French  importation  in  Japan  is  not  of  much  value,  but 
it  ascends;  in  1906,  it  was  4,997,000  yen;  in  1907, 
7,024,000  yen.  It  is  true  that  Japanese  exports  valued 
40,228,000  yen  in  1906,  and  42,592,000  yen  in  1907,  but  it 
is  because  Japan  buys  silk,  a  dear  commodity.  It  leaves 
Japan  with  money  in  exchange  for  silk,  but  it  does  not 
profit  by  Japanese  commerce,  since  it  has  little  or  no 
import  trade. 

These  are  the  principal  articles  which  France  sells  : — 

Spy-glasses  and  telescopes,  silver  watch-cases,  the  works 
for  clocks,  butter,  Antipyrine,  chlorate  of  potash,  drugs 
and  medicines,  amorphous  phosphorus,  yellow  phosphorus, 
logwood,  pig-bristles,  copper  tubes,  lead,  books,  cigarette 
papers,  delaines,  bottled  wines,  casks  of  wine,  champagne, 
brandy,  other  liqueurs,  corks,  toilet  soap,  ordinary  soap, 
perfumery. 

As  I  have  said  above,  France's  principal  article  of 
production,  mousseline  de  laine,  is  little  by  little  being 
taken  away  from  her.  Beside  Swiss  and  German  com- 
petition, there  is  also  a  Japanese  fabric,  which  is  in 
process  of  production,  not  as  good  as  the  French,  but 
sufficiently  "  made  in  Japan  "  to  satisfy  the  taste  and 
purse  of  its  purchasers. 

With  regard  to  wines,  if  France  imports  a  total  of 
s616,000,  including  red  and  white  wines,  wine  in  casks 
and  bottles,  champagne,  sparkling  wines,  that  is  all. 
The  Japanese,  like  the  Chinese  and  all  other  Orientals, 

15 


226  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

do  not  drink  wine.  With  the  few  barrels  of  red  wine 
which  he  sends  for,  the  Japanese  will  mix  treacle  and 
sugar,  and  will  thus  make  "  vin  Japonais,"  the  delight  of 
the  gourmets  in  the  restaurants  of  Tokyo.  Needless  to 
say,  this  unspeakable  production  is  horrible  to  a  European 
palate. 

With  regard  to  brandy  and  liqueurs,  the  French  import 
£6,400  worth  ;  that  is  for  the  consumption  of  the  Euro- 
pean colony. 

X 

As  one  sees,  France  has  not  any  great  trade  with 
Japan,  and  it  is  difficult  to  increase  it.  It  cannot  compete 
with  other  nations  in  supplying  Japan  with  what  it 
needs  most  :  raw  cotton,  metals  of  all  kinds,  and 
machines.  It  is  beginning  to  see  that  its  delaines  are 
on  the  decline,  and  that  its  principal  article  of  import, 
wine,  is  not  appreciated. 

France  cannot  any  longer  count  upon  things  designated 
**  Parisian,"  as  for  example  Paris  goods,  fashions,  hats, 
&c.,  for  they  are  little  used  by  the  natives,  and  those, 
moreover,  which  are  found  in  Japan  are  Parisian  goods 
made  in  Germany  ;  they  are  imported  to  Japan  at  such 
a  price  that  the  dearness  of  the  raw  material  and  the 
French  workmanship  do  not  allow  France  to  compete. 
It  is  evident  that  there  is  no  use  in  making  much  effort 
in  this  direction.  Japan  is  not  one  of  France's  clients, 
not  even  for  luxuries,  indisputably  superior  to  all  others  ; 
for  it  is  poor,  and  when  it  wants  a  luxury  it  comes 
from  Berlin  at  a  more  advantageous  rate. 

The  Japanese  trader  has  not  the  reputation  of  being 
serious  and  true  to  his  word.  The  authorities  have  made 
laudable   efforts  to   convince    their    compatriots  of   the 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  227 

necessity  of  sincerity  in  business,  and  there  is  reason  to 
hope  that  these  efforts  will  not  be  in  vain.  But  the 
Japanese  is  much  less  commercial  than  the  Chinese,  and 
all  those  who  have  had  anything  to  do  with  the  two 
races  are  unanimous  in  preferring  the  Chinese.  More- 
over, all  the  great  European  houses  established  in  Japan, 
and  all  the  banks,  have  Chinese  managers  and  assis- 
tants, never  Japanese.  The  Japanese  merchant  has  no 
scruple  in  not  receiving  merchandise  if  during  the  trans- 
action the  market  value  has  altered  to  his  detriment  ;  he 
knows  that  the  European  will  still  prefer  to  have  his  mer- 
chandise in  hand  rather  than  to  lose  time  in  the  process. 

I  have  happened  to  discover,  often,  in  the  bales  of  silk 
sent  from  the  interior  to  Yokohama  for  export,  the 
presence  of  bricks  and  stones  carefully  covered  up  with 
hanks,  and  there  was  a  time  when  silk  exporters  were 
obliged  to  examine  every  bale  without  exception,  seeing 
the  impossibility  of  trusting  to  the  good  faith  of  the 
native  merchant. 

As  I  have  already  said,  the  total  trade  of  Japan  for 
1908  has  suffered  from  a  decrease  of  dÊll, 297,000. 
Perhaps  this  is  the  result  of  the  Eusso- Japanese  War  ; 
perhaps  an  economic  crisis  has  arisen  which  has  pre- 
vaiL5  everywhere,  and  has  made  itself  felt  in  Japan  as 
everywhere  else.  We  shall  see.  In  any  case,  it  is  quite 
certain  that  Japan  is  disgusted  :  it  wished  to  run,  and  to 
run  quickly  ;  it  has  no  longer  the  means.  The  journals 
show  a  lassitude  and  a  general  discouragement  ;  only  the 
Japanese  Chronicle  is  not  discouraged,  and  says  that  if 
Japan  feels  the  effect  of  the  burden  borne  during  the 
recent  war,  and  of  a  fiscal  system  not  less  heavy,  it 
hopes,  nevertheless,  to  see  it  recover  itself  ;  but,  it  says, 
that  will  he  slowly. 


228 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 


XI 

The  following  table  shows  the  figures  for  export  and 
import  for  each  port  for  the  year  1907,  the  most  recent 
list  published  : — 


Yokohama   .. 

Kobe 

Osaka 

Nagasaki 

Hakodate 

Niigata 

Shimonoseki 


Yokohama 

Kobe 

Osaka 

Nagasaki   ... 

Hakodate  ... 

Niigata 

Shimonoseki 


Exports. 

Yen. 

205,888,000 

Moji    ... 

106,668,000 

Otaru ... 

60,037,000 

Mororan 

4,654,000 

Wakamatsu 

2,268,000 

Kuchinotsu 

206,000 

Yokkaichi 

4,364,000 

Tsuruga 

Imp( 

DETS. 

Yen. 

172,485,000 

Moji  ... 

223,437,000 

Otaru 

34,451,000 

Mororan 

16,280,000 

Wakamatsu 

673,000 

Kuchinotsu. 

1,067,000 

Yokkaichi 

2,480,000 

Tsuruga 

Yen. 
19,049,000 
6,012,000 
1,924,000 
3,179,000 
4,908,000 
3,908,000 
1,895,000 


Yen. 

26,413,000 

122,000 

1,000 

962,000 

307,000 

9,026,000 

880,000 


XII 

There  entered  into  the  ports  of  Japan  in  1907,  8,770 
Japanese  steamboats,  57  Chinese,  6,267  English,  390 
French,  1,858  German,  154  Austria-Hungarian,  324 
Russian,  64  Danish,  385  Norwegian,  1,618  American 
from  the  United  States  ;  317  of  different  flags — a  total  of 
20,199  steam  vessels  of  all  countries,  of  which  8,770  were 
under  the  Japanese  flag.  In  1895  there  was  a  total  of 
1,749  ships,  of  which  63  were  Japanese. 

The  first  Japanese  steam  navigation  company  was 
formed  in  1877,  under  the  name  of  Yubin  Risen 
Mitsubishi  Kwaisha,  that  is  to  say,  mail  steamers  of  the 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  229 

Mitsubishi  Company  ;  in  1882  appeared  the  Kiôdô  uniu 
Kwaisha,  or  Union  of  Maritime  Transports  ;  and  in  1884 
the  Osaka  Shôsen  Kwaisha,  or  Maritime  Navigation 
Company  of  Osaka. 

The  Steam  Merchant  Service  v^as  created  ;  it  v^as 
necessary  to  maintain  and  develop  it.  In  1885  the  first 
two  companies,  after  a  desperate  competition,  v^^ere 
united  under  the  name  of  Nippon  Yûsen  Kwaisha,  or 
Company  of  Japanese  mail  steamers — a  company  to 
which  the  Government  of  the  Mikado  offered  all  the 
necessary  moral  and  financial  support  ;  then  the  laws  on 
navigation  and  shipbuilding,  according  a  high  enough 
premium,  gave  a  new  impetus  to  the  steam  merchant 
service. 

According  to  navigation  law,  a  Japanese  steam  vessel 
of  at  least  1,000  tons,  and  of  at  least  10  knots,  and 
destined  for  a  long  voyage,  is  qualified  to  receive  a  fixed 
premium  according  to  the  distance  traversed  and  the 
tonnage  of  the  boat.  This  premium,  for  a  steamship  of 
1,000  tons,  rises  to  25  yen  per  ton  and  per  10  knots,  and 
is  perhaps  increased  by  10  per  cent,  for  each  500  tons 
extra,  and  by  28  per  cent,  for  each  knot  of  increased 
speed  per  hour. 

For  a  vessel  of  at  least  6,500  tons  and  18  knots  the 
maximum  limit  of  premium  will  be  that  accorded  to  a 
vessel  of  6,000  tons  and  of  17  knots.  In  order  to 
have  the  entire  premium,  the  vessel  must  not  be  older 
than  five  years  ;  above  this  age  the  premium  diminishes 
by  5  per  cent,  every  year.  The  premiums  for  the 
budget  1907-1908  rose  to  11,170,255  yen,  or  £1,117,025. 

Special  grants  are  besides  granted  to  different  com- 
panies ;  thus  the  Nippon  Yûsen  Kwaisha  receives  for  the 
budget  year  1908-1909,  4,283,707  yen  plus  220,000  yen  ; 


230         THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

the  Toyo  Kisen  Kwaisha  receives  1,013,880  yen  plus 
750,000  yen  ;  the  Japan  China  Steam  Navigation  Com- 
pany receives  800,000  yen  only  ;  the  Osaka  Shosen 
Kwaisha  receives  491,000  yen  plus  100,000  yen. 

The  premiums  for  shipbuilding  amount  to  1,995,440  yen. 

A  nation  of  sailors  encouraged  in  this  way  by  the 
Government  cannot  fail  to  create  a  great  merchant 
service,  and  at  the  present  time  the  Asiatic  seas  are 
ploughed  by  Japanese  boats  : — 

The  line  from  Yokohama  to  Shanghai  ;  line  from 
Yokohama  to  Tientsin,  passing  by  the  ports  of  Korea; 
line  from  Nagasaki  to  Vladivostock,  passing  by  the  ports 
of  Korea  ;  line  from  Yokohama  to  Shanghai  and  to  the 
different  ports  of  Yangtsen,  to  Hankow  and  Itchang  ;  line 
from  Tsuruga  to  Vladivostock  ;  line  from  Yokohama  to 
Bombay. 

To  Europe  and  America  : — 

Line  from  Yokohama  to  Marseilles,  London  and 
Antwerp  ;  line  from  Hong-Kong  to  San  Francisco  ;  line 
from  Hong-Kong  to  Seattle. 

To  Australia  : — 

Line  from  Yokohama  to  Melbourne. 

The  Toyo  Kisen  Kwaisha  had  created  in  1905  a  biennial 
service  to  America  from  the  South,  but  it  abandoned  its 
regular  plan  of  navigation  from  this  side. 

These  different  companies  are  far  from  paying  their 
expenses,  and  it  is  the  premium  granted  by  the  State 
which  maintains  them. 

The  Nippon  Yusen  Kwaisha  possesses  a  capital  of 
22,000,000  yen  ;  the  Osaka  Shosen  Kwaisha,  a  capital  of 
16,500,000  yen  ;  the  Toyo  Kisen  Kwaisha,  a  capital 
of  6,500,000  yen  ;  and  finally  the  Japan  China  Steamship 
Company  a  capital  of  8,100,000  yen. 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  231 

These  are  the  four  principal  steamship  navigation 
companies  making  long  voyages  ;  there  are  also  a  con- 
siderable enough  number  of  small  companies  for  coasting 
trade,  which  I  do  not  think  it  necessary  to  mention  here. 


XIII 

The  only  French  vessels  which  touch  at  Japanese 
ports  are  those  of  the  Messageries  Maritimes  ;  the 
number  of  their  entries  and  departures  is  naturally  the 
same  ;  here  as  elsewhere,  the  insufficiency  of  the  French 
navy  manifests  itself.  The  trading  companies  have  tried 
timidly  for  some  years  to  establish  a  line  of  cargo 
boats  for  the  Far  East,  but  there  are  too  small  a 
number  of  them.  On  the  other  hand,  on  account  of 
French  maritime  regulations  obliging  shipping  com- 
panies to  use  maritime  registers  and  to  have  a  fixed 
number  of  officers  and  French  sailors,  the  freights 
are  dearer  on  their  vessels  than  on  the  others,  and 
thus  it  is  that  in  the  whole  of  the  East,  in  Japan 
as  elsewhere,  French  productions  arrive  under  the 
English  flag  of  London  and  under  the  German  flag  of 
Antwerp.  This  ancient  law  of  registers  has  indeed  had 
its  day  ;  it  is  necessary  to  let  the  companies  choose 
their  employees  with  freedom  ;  and  also  to  modify 
the  regulations  relating  to  the  personnel  of  French 
nationality. 

XIV 

The  general  Japanese  tariff,  put  into  force   in   1899, 

after   the   revision   of   the    treaties,    is    very  heavy   for 
products     of     European    importation  ;     the    Japanese 


232         THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

Government,  it  is  true,  has  accorded  a  conventional 
tariff  for  certain  products  to  France,  England,  Ger- 
many, and  the  United  States,  but  in  some  cases  on 
certain  articles  the  duty  is  prohibitive. 

Cattle  pays  10  to  30  per  cent.  ;  dried  peas,  40  per 
cent.  ;  preserved  fruits,  45  per  cent.  ;  chicory,  45  per 
cent.  ;  spices  (pepper,  &c.),  18  yen  per  100  lbs.  ;  mustard, 
45  per  cent.  ;  ham,  14  yen  per  100  lbs.  ;  butter,  27  yen  ; 
cheese,  17  yen  ;  meat  extract,  77  yen  per  100  lbs.  ; 
comestibles  in  general,  40  per  cent.  ;  juice  of  fruit  and 
syrups,  45  per  cent.  ;  honey,  50  per  cent.  ;  jams,  jellies, 
13  yen  per  100  lbs.  ;  bottled  wines,  80  sen  per  litre  (more 
than  2  shillings)  ;  wines  in  casks,  30  sen  per  litre. 

For  France  there  is  a  conventional  tariff  for  the  import 
of  wines  : — 

Wines  not  exceeding  16°  pure  alcohol,  1  yen  24 
sen  per  hectolitre  (in  casks  or  barrels)  ;  67  sen  per 
case  of  14  half-bottles  or  12  bottles  ;  exceeding  16°  and 
not  exceeding  24°  :  92  sen  (in  casks  or  barrels)  ;  68  sen 
per  case  of  24  half  bottles  and  24  bottles. 

Champagne,  2  yen  per  litre  ;  French  champagne  always 
pays  1  yen  55  sen  per  case  of  24  half  bottles  or  12  bottles;  all 
alcoholic  drinks,  90  sen  per  litre  ;  alcohol,  65  sen  per  litre. 

Horsehair  pays  from  7  to  55  and  98  yen  per  100  lb. 

Pharmaceutical  products  are  very  dear. 

Cotton  threads,  12  per  cent,  and  25  per  cent,  per 
100  lb.  ;  sewing  cotton,  29  yen  per  100  lb.  ;  hemp 
thread,  30  per  cent. 

For  the  importation  of  cotton  cloth  there  is  a  con- 
ventional tariff  with  England — they  pay  generally  10  per 
cent.  ;  grey  and  white  delaine,  1  sen  5  rin,  and  1  sen 
8  rin  per  square  yard  ;  other  kinds,  2  sen  1  rin  ;  hand- 
kerchiefs,   counterpanes,    carpets,    curtains,   and    other 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  233 

fabrics  of  this  kind  pay  40  to  50  per  cent.;  shirts, 
vests,  shawls,  braces  pay  40  to  50  per  cent. 

Precious  metals  and  jewels,  50  to  60  per  cent. 

Metals  in  general  pay  less  dearly,  for  Japan  imports  a 
great  quantity  and  it  lets  them  come  in  with  reasonable 
duties.  Mechanical  objects  such  as  microscopes,  lorg- 
nettes, watches,  telescopes,  phonographs,  sewing 
machines,  tool  machines,  springs,  &c.,  pay  15  to  20  to 
40  per  cent. 

On  the  whole  one  may  say  that  the  Japanese  custom- 
house rate  is  one  of  the  highest  known,  and  the 
custom  officers  exact  the  duties  with  great  severity. 


CHAPTEE  XV 


I.  Roads — II.  Railways,  State  and  Companies.  Purchase  of  the  lines  by 
the  State  and  nationalisation  of  the  railway  systems — III.  Principal 
lines — IV.  Tramways — V.  Tarifis  of  the  railways. 


Communication  in  Japan  is  effected  in  two  manners  : 
by  the  roads  and  by  the  railways.  "Water  transit  is 
practically  non-existent  owing  to  the  lack  of  navigable 
rivers.  At  the  mouths  of  certain  rivers  some  navigation 
is  practicable,  and  also  in  their  lower  courses.  Interior 
navigation  such  as  exists  in  Europe,  and  parallel  to  the 
means  of  communication  by  land,  is  not  employed  in 
Japan,  and  could  not  be,  owing  to  the  orographic 
system  of  the  country  and  the  slight  length  and  breadth 
of  its  water-courses. 

The  roads  are  infrequent  and  badly  kept,  for  it  appears 
that  the  Japanese  Government  does  not  much  occupy 
itself  with  them,  and  for  some  long  time  there  has  been 
no  Minister  for  Public  Works.  There  exists  no  body  of 
engineers  for  bridges  and  roads,  and  each  prefecture  and 
each  village  and  town  maintains  its  roads  somewhat 
according  to  its  own  desires. 

For  this  reason  one  does  not  travel  in  carriages  in 
Japan,  though  formerly  the  great  nobles  and   the  rich 

23^ 


A    MOUNTAIN    VILLAGE. 


1 

1 

1 

r  i 

ROOMS    IN    AN    INN,    P'OKMKK'LY   A    DAlMYo's    KESIDENCE. 


To  face  p.  234. 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  235 

people  went  about  in  carrying-chairs.  The  people  rode 
on  horseback  or  went  on  foot,  and  a  narrow  path 
between  the  rice-fields  sufficed  them  for  getting  along. 
Since  the  introduction  of  railways  all  the  world  takes 
the  train,  and  in  developing  its  railway  system  it  has 
not  occurred  to  Japan  to  develop  its  system  of  road 
transit.  It  must  not  be  thought,  however,  that  there 
are  no  roads  in  this  country  ;  but  in  addition  to  their 
being  inadequate  both  in  number  and  size,  they  are  even 
more  inadequate  from  the  standpoint  of  maintenance, 
and  during  the  rainy  season  in  certain  provinces  it  is 
impossible  to  get  even  a  jinrikisha  through. 

I  give  here  the  principal  transport  roads  of  any  size, 
and  first  of  all  the  Imperial  Highways,  which  since 
olden  days  have  existed  for  the  purpose  of  connecting 
the  principal  centres  of  the  Empire.  The  best  known  to 
Europeans  is  the  Tôkaidô,  running  from  Tokyo  to  Kyoto, 
and  325  miles  long.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  designs  by 
Hiroshigé,  and  it  was  the  road  most  frequented  formerly 
by  the  cortèges  of  the  Shoguns  and  the  Daimyos  when 
they  repaired  to  Kyoto  to  render  homage  to  the  Emperor; 
now  it  is  greatly  deserted,  owing  to  the  construction  of 
the  railway  line,  which  stretches  uninterruptedly  its 
whole  length,  and  it  has  lost  the  animated  and  bustling 
character  that  it  still  retained  twenty  years  ago. 

It  starts  from  Niho7n-bashi  (the  bridge  of  Japan),  the 
central  point  from  which  all  distances  are  calculated, 
branches  from  Tokyo  to  nearly  all  the  extremities  of  the 
Empire,  and  after  having  traversed  numerous  towns  and 
villages,  of  which  the  most  important  are  Fujisawa, 
Odawara,  Hakone,  Shizuoka,  Hamamatsu,  Atsuta, 
Yokkaichi,  and  Otsu — reaches  Kyoto  and  terminates  at 
the  bridge  of  Sanjo  Ohashi. 


236         THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

The  Nakasendo,  the  Imperial  Highway,  also  branches 
from  Tokyo,  and  ends  at  Kyoto,  but  it  crosses  the  central 
portion  through  the  Ken  of  Nagano  (Zenkoji),  whilst  the 
Tôkaidô  follows  the  sea.  The  Nakasendo  has  a  total 
extent  of  345  miles,  and  from  Nihom-bashi  runs  towards 
Omiya  and  Takasaki  (40,000  inhabitants)  ;  then  at 
Kutsukake  enters  the  Ken  of  Nagana,  and  going  through 
Shimo-no-Suwa  and  Fukushima,  descends  at  Ochiai,  Ken 
of  Gifu,  ending  at  Kyoto  at  the  bridge  of  Sanjo  Ohashi, 
after  having  crossed  Sekigahara  and  Otsu. 

The  Biku  u  Kaidô,  also  called  Oshu  Kaidô  or  Ou 
Kaidô,  extends  from  Tokyo  to  Aomori  (northern  ex- 
tremity of  Honshu). 

This  road  is  500  miles  long;  it  starts  from  Nihom-bashi, 
passes  near  Tokyo  at  Senji,  and  at  Soka  reaches 
the  Ken  of  Saitama  ;  at  Nakada  it  crosses  the  Ken  of 
Ibaraki,  and  at  Nogi,  the  Ken  of  Tochigi.  It  passes 
Nihommatsu,  a  pretty  little  town  with  15,000  inhabi- 
tants, in  the  Ken  of  Fukushima,  province  of  Iwashiro, 
then  reaches  Sendai,  Ken  of  Miyagi,  province  of 
Eikuzen,  an  important  town  with  more  than  100,000 
inhabitants.  From  thence  continuing  north  it  passes 
by  Morioka,  Ken  of  Iwati,  province  of  Eikuchû,  the 
town  having  40,000  inhabitants,  and  finishes  finally  at 
Aomori,  Ken  of  Aomori,  province  of  Mutsu,  chief  town 
of  the  Ken,  with  20,000  inhabitants. 

The  Akita  Kaidô  has  a  length  of  377  miles  from 
Tokyo  to  Akita.  It  separates  into  two  portions,  the 
one  going  from  Tokyo  (Nihom-bashi  to  Yamagata,  with 
an  extent  of  237  miles),  the  other  from  Yamagata  to 
Akita,  and  140  miles  long. 

The  Imperial  Highway,  Akita  ken  michi,  130  miles 
in  length,  joins  Akita  to  Aomori. 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  237 

The  ChîiJcoku  Kaidô,  Imperial  road,  starts  from  Osaka 
and  reaches  Akamagaseki  at  the  south-western  extremity 
of  Honshu,  Ken  of  Yamaguchi,  its  length  being  350 
miles  ;  it  crosses  Himeji,  Ken  of  Hyogo,  province  of 
Harima  (35,000  inhabitants)  ;  Okayama,  Ken  of  Oka- 
yama,  province  of  Hizen  (80,000  inhabitants);  Hiroshima, 
Ken  of  Hiroshima,  province  of  Aki  (121,000  inhabitants), 
ending  at  Akamagaseki,  a  small  town  with  35,000 
souls. 

The  Ehime  Kaidô  connects  Osaka  to  Matsuyama,  and 
is  about  237  miles  long. 

The  Fukui  Kaidô,  Imperial  road,  joins  Tokyo  to 
Fukui  (Ken  of  the  same  name).  Its  length  is  340 
miles.  From  Nihom-bashi  to  Atsuta  this  road  joins  the 
Tôkaidô  ;  after  Atsuta  it  passes  Nagoya,  an  important 
town  with  290,000  inhabitants,  and  after  having  traversed 
some  twenty-five  or  twenty-six  little  towns  and  villages, 
finishes  at  Fukui,  chief  town  of  the  Ken  of  Fukui,  a 
town  with  50,000  inhabitants. 

The  IshiJcawa  Kaidô  connects  Tokyo  with  Kanazawa 
(Ken  of  Ishikawa).  It  divides  into  three  branches  :  from 
Tokyo  (Nihom-bashi)  to  Atsuta,  227  miles  long  ;  from 
Atsuta  to  Fukui,  112  miles  long  ;  from  Fukui  to  Kana- 
zawa, 55  miles  long. 

The  Kagoshima  Kaidô,  Imperial  road,  starts  from 
Kokura,  in  the  north  of  Kyushu,  and  reaches  Kagoshima, 
skirting  Kumamoto  ;  its  length  is  245  miles. 

A  second  road  leaves  Kohura  and  extends  to 
Kagoshima,  but  passes  by  Miyazaki,  and  is  290  miles 
long. 

The  Kôchi  Kaidô  connects  Osaka  with  Kochi  (35,000 
inhabitants),  and  is  222  miles  long. 

The  Kôshû  Kaidô,  Imperial  road,  greatly  frequented  and 


238         THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

usually  in  very  bad  condition  ;  it  connects  Tokyo  to  Kofu 
and  has  an  extent  of  87  miles. 

The  Nagasaki  Kaido,  Imperial  road,  begins  at  Kokura 
and  reaches  Nagasaki,  with  a  length  of  157  miles.  It 
goes  across  a  country  that  is  extraordinarily  rough. 

The  two  Imperial  highways  from  Tokyo  to  Niigata  are 
named  Niigata  Kaido.  One  skirts  Shimotzu  and  is  220 
miles  long  ;  the  other  passes  Nagano  (Zenkoji)  and  is 
280  miles  long. 

Such  are  the  chief  great  roads  of  Japan  accessible  on 
foot  and  on  horseback,  but  absolutely  impracticable  in 
certain  countries  through  which  they  extend  for  carriages 
and  automobiles.  Sometimes  for  a  certain  length  in  the 
vicinity  of  a  large  town  the  road  is  in  good  condition,  and 
somewhat  resembles  a  fine  road  in  France,  but  one  can- 
not go  a  great  way  without  getting  into  ruts  and  bogs. 
The  road  system  itself  and  its  branches  through  the 
Empire  are  not  badly  maintained,  but  for  the  most  part 
it  is  not  a  question  of  roads  but  of  tracks,  sometimes  wide, 
but  narrow  at  other  times. 


II 

The  care  that  the  Japanese  have  neglected  to  bestow 
upon  their  system  of  roads  has  been  entirely  consecrated 
to  their  railway  system.  At  the  present  time  Japan  is 
covered  with  railways,  for  the  Japanese  are  constantly 
travelling,  and  move  from  one  place  to  another  with  the 
greatest  ease.  It  was  in  1869,  following  on  the  Imperial 
Bestoration,  that  the  Government  decided  to  apply  itself 
to  the  work  of  investing  Japan  with  iron  roads,  and  it 
charged  the  Department  for  Civil  and  Financial  Affairs 
(suppressed  to-day)  to  prepare  the  plans.     The  first  track 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  239 

was  constructed  in  1872,  between  Tokyo  (Shimbashi) 
and  Yokohama,  and  almost  immediately  after  Kobe 
was  connected  with  Osaka  and  Kyoto  by  another 
line.  The  Japanese  tracks  are  at  a  distance  of  3^  feet 
apart. 

For  many  years  these  two  lines,  the  Tokyo-Yokohama 
and  the  Kobe-Kyoto,  were  the  only  two  railroads  existing 
in  Japan  ;  then  in  1881  the  Railway  Company  of  Japan 
(Nippon  Tetsudo  Kwaisha)  obtained  the  authorisation  to 
commence  the  Tokyo-Aomori  line. 

The  enterprise  at  this  period  was  not  lacking  in  courage, 
for  it  was  difficult  to  find  the  workmen,  the  ordinary 
workmen  not  being  sufficiently  experienced  in  this  class 
of  labour,  and  moreover  the  length  of  the  line  necessitated 
a  considerable  outlay  of  money.  In  spite  of  all  difficul- 
ties the  work  was  commenced  in  1882,  between  Tokyo 
and  Mayebashi,  the  Government  having  decided  to 
guarantee  the  loan  and  to  give  every  facility  to  the 
Company,  and  in  1883  the  Tokyo  (Ueno)-Kumagaye 
section  was  opened  for  traffic.  This  acted  as  a  spur, 
and  competition  was  at  once  started,  and  private  railway 
companies,  in  conjunction  with  the  State,  began  to 
establish  lines  everywhere  with  feverish  eagerness.  In 
every  province  associations  were  formed  for  the  construc- 
tion and  working  of  railway  lines,  which  at  times  were 
of  no  great  length. 

Since  1903  there  have  been  in  existence  1,226  miles  of 
line  belonging  to  the  State,  and  3,010  miles  belonging  to 
private  associations.  Amongst  the  latter,  the  Railway 
Company  of  Japan  possesses  857  miles  ;  the  Railway 
Company  of  Kyushu,  416  miles  ;  and  the  Railway  Com- 
pany of  San-yo  (Kôbe-Yamaguchi) ,  334  miles  of  railway 
extension.      I  give  below  an  explanatory  table,  so  that 


240  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

the  reader  can  see  at  a  glance  with  what  rapidity  the 
railway  lines  in  Japan  have  been  developed  : — 


Tear 

State  Lines 

on  Dec.  31st. 

(In  English  miles). 

Companies'  Lines. 

1872 

68 

— 

1877 

65 

— 

1882 

170 

— 

1887 

300 

293 

1892 

550 

1,320 

1893 

557 

1,381 

1894 

580 

1,537 

1895 

593 

1,697 

1896 

631 

1,875 

1897 

661 

2,287 

1898 

768 

2,652 

1899 

832 

2,806 

1900 

949 

2,905 

1901 

1,059 

2,966 

1902 

1,226 

3,010 

I  have  already  stated  that  the  railways  are  constructed 
at  a  gauge  of  a  little  over  3  feet.  The  carriages  are  com- 
fortable enough  for  the  Japanese,  but  the  sleeping-cars,  for 
instance,  are  wholly  useless  to  a  European  of  reasonable 
height.  The  only  practical  and  comfortable  carriages  in 
Asia  are  those  of  the  Indo-Britannic  Line.  I  will  pass 
over  in  silence  those  of  Tonquin,  where  there  are  no 
conveniences  for  passing  the  night. 

The  stock  of  locomotives  and  carriages  can  be  estimated 
to-day  at  1,500  locomotives,  5,000  passenger  carriages, 
and  21,000  goods  carriages. 

According  to  the  reports  of  March,  1903,  the  capital 
subscribed  for  the  railway  industry  amounted  to 
520,830,963  yen  (^520,830,096).  Of  this  sum  the  State 
figured  for  247,655,963  yen,  and  the  private  companies  for 
273,175,000  yen. 

But  these  sums  do  not  represent  the  capital  invested  ; 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  241 

they  represent  the  nominal  capital.     The  capital  invested 
towards  the  end  of  1903  can  be  stated  thus  : — 

state  Railways  :  144,395,060  yen. 

Railways  of  the  Companies  :  231,808,970  yen. 

In  January,  1905,  at  the  time  when  the  Saionji 
Cabinet  attained  to  power,  the  Government,  after  pro- 
longed and  deHberate  consideration,  presented  to  the 
Chambers  a  project  for  the  purchase  by  the  State  of  all 
the  railway  lines.  Presented  to  the  Chamber  of  Repre- 
sentatives on  March  3rd,  the  project  was  adopted  on  the 
16th  of  the  same  month  by  a  very  large  majority.  In 
the  Chamber  of  Peers  the  number  of  companies  to  be 
bought  out  at  first  was  reduced  from  32  to  17,  but  ulti- 
mately both  Chambers  ratified  the  law  of  purchase  for  all 
the  railways,  and  thereby  for  the  nationalisation  of  the 
railway  system  of  the  Empire.  Immediately  a  special 
bureau  charged  with  the  effecting  of  the  purchase,  and 
first  of  all  of  drawing  up  the  conditions  under  which  the 
purchase  should  take  place,  was  created  by  an  Imperial 
Ordinance,  number  117,  dated  May  23,  1906;  in  prin- 
ciple the  purchase  of  the  17  companies  to  be  bought  out 
had  to  be  effected  in  ten  years  ;  but  this  long  delay  looked 
as  if  it  would  have  the  effect  of  slackening  progress  in  the 
construction  and  development  of  the  railway  systems  and 
of  occasioning  great  financial  loss.  The  Government 
consequently  determined  to  carry  out  the  purchase  with 
as  little  delay  as  possible,  and  on  July  20,  1906,  the  fol- 
lowing lines  were  designated  for  the  first  redemption  : — 

Line  belonging  to  the  Coal  Associations  of  Yezo,  October  1,  1908. 

Kobe  line,  October  1,  1906. 

Nippon  line,  November  1,  1906. 

Gan  yetsu  line,  November  1,  1906. 

San  yô  line,  December  1,  1906. 

Nishinari  line,  December  1,  1906. 

16 


242         THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

Later,  on  the  3rd  of  April,  1907,  the  following  lines 
were  designated  for  purchase,  which  consequently  was 
effected  as  below  : — 

Kyùshû  lines      July  1,  1907 

Hokkaido  lines July  1,  1907 

Kyoto  lines         August  1,  1907 

Hankaku  lines August  1,  1907 

Hokuyetsu  lines  August  1,  1907 

So  Bu  lines         September  1,  1907 

BÔ  So  lines  September  1,  1907 

Nanao  lines         September  1,  1907 

Tokushima  lines  September  1,  1907 

Kwansai  lines     ... October  1,  1907 

Sangu  lines  October  1,  1907 

All  these  lines  were  thus  bought  out  in  1906  and  1907 
for  the  sum  of  720,878,360  yen,  according  to  the  settled 
price  of  purchase,  increased  by  61,519,076  yen  as 
supplementary  purchase  for  construction,  material  in 
stock,  &c.,  which  makes  the  sum  total  782,397,435  yen 
or  £78,239,743. 

This  figure  shows  that  the  Japanese  railways  are  a 
long  way  from  attaining  the  value  of  the  European 
railways. 

In  addition  to  the  lines  above  that  have  been  pur- 
chased by  the  State  and  that  constitute  the  principal 
railway  systems  of  the  Empire,  there  still  exist  several 
small  lines  which  continue  to  operate  outside  State 
control,  and  that  are  in  the  hands  of  particular 
associations.  These  are  the  lines  of  Bisei,  15  miles; 
principal  station,  Tsushima  (Ken  d'Aichi)  ; 

Chugoku,  48  miles;  departure  station,  Okayama  ; 

Chuyetsu,  83  miles  ;  departure  station,  Shemoseki 
(Toyama)  ; 

Hakata  Wan,  15  miles  ;  chief  station,  Fukuoka  Ken  ; 

lyo,  26  miles  ;  chief  station,  Matsuyama  ; 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  243 

lobu,  24  miles  ;  chief  station,  Saitama  Ken  ; 

Kanan,  10  miles  ;  principal  station,  Osaka  Fu  ; 

Kawagoye,  18  miles  ;  principal  station,  Kawagoye 
(Saitama)  ; 

Kotsuke,  21  miles  ;  headquarters,  Takasaki  ; 

Koya,  17  miles  ;  chief  station,  Mukai  (Osaka)  ; 

Mito,  12  miles  ;  chief  station,  Mito  ; 

Nankai,  42  miles  ;  chief  station,  Osaka  ; 

Narita,  45  miles  ;  chief  station,  Narita  (Chiba  Ken)  ; 

Ome,  13  miles  ;  chief  station,  Ome  (Tokyo)  ; 

Omi,  12  miles  ;  chief  station,  Shiga  Ken  ; 

Riugasaki,  2  miles  ;  chief  station,  Riugasaki  (Ibaraki)  ; 

Sano,  9  miles  ;  chief  station,  Tochigi  Ken  ; 

Tobu,  42  miles  ;  chief  station,  Tokyo  ; 

Toyokawa,  17  miles  ;  chief  station,  Toyohashi  ; 

Zuso,  10  miles  ;  headquarters,  Tokyo. 

The  construction  of  the  different  lines  has  cost 
997,250,000  yen.  In  a  general  way  the  carriages  are 
built  in  Japan,  only  the  material  of  iron  or  steel  is 
bought  abroad  or  manufactured  either  at  the  works  of 
the  company  for  constructing  trucks  at  Osaka,  or  at 
those  of  Nagoya,  or  Amano,  near  Tokyo.  The  loco- 
motive machines  and  all  the  delicate  portions  come 
from  abroad,  either  from  Germany,  from  Bourg  in 
Berhn,  or  the  Berlin  Machinery  Company,  Ltd.  Or 
from  the  United  States  of  America  :  Brooks  Loco.  ;  Cooke 
Loco.  ;  Pittsburg  Loco.  Or  from  Belgium  :  the  John 
Cockerill  Society.  Or  from  England  :  North  British 
Loco.  Co.  ;  the  Vulcan  Foundry  ;  Kitson  and  Co.,  Leeds. 
No  material  is  furnished  by  France,  the  reasons  for 
which  it  is  not  difficult  to  understand.  It  will  be 
sufficient  to  state  one  of  them  :  this  is,  that  the  cost  of 
production  of  her  manufactures  is  so  much  higher  than 


244         THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 

that   of   other  industrial  countries  that  she  is  not  in  a 
position  to  sell  to  the  foreigner. 

Ill 

At  the  present  time  the  traveller  can  go  right  round 
Japan  by  railroad  :  there  are  no  places  that  cannot  be 
reached  by  it,  or  at  least  to  which  one  cannot  approach 
by  this  mode  of  locomotion.  If  we  take  Tokyo  as  the 
central  point  with  the  object  of  going  in  a  northerly 
direction,  we  can  make  use  of  the  great  line  from  Ueno 
(station  of  the  Northern  railway  at  Tokyo),  to  Aomori, 
which  passes  Sendai  and  Morioka,  and  serves  a  number 
of  localities  in  the  course  of  its  extension. 

From  Aomori  the  line  curves  inwards  in  a  southerly 
direction  and  makes  a  descent  again  on  the  western  side 
of  Akita.  On  the  south  the  line  from  Tôkaidô  leaves 
Shimbashi  (station  of  the  Southern  railway  at  Tokyo)  and 
goes  to  Kyoto,  passing  by  Nagoya  and  serving  a  certain 
number  of  important  towns,  such  as  Numazu,  Shiznoka, 
Hamamatsu  ;  from  Kyoto  the  track  extends  to  Osaka  and 
Kobe,  and  from  this  latter  port  it  extends  as  far  as 
Yamaguchi  on  the  south-western  extremity  of  Honshu. 
By  crossing  the  arm  of  the  sea  separating  Shimonoseke 
from  Moji,  one  can  get  on  to  the  line  running  up  to 
Nagasaki.  Thus  from  north  to  south  in  its  whole  length, 
Japan  is  served  by  a  railway  line  that  forms  a  sort  of 
immense  "  skeleton  "  for  all  the  secondary  lines  running 
in  different  directions  to  all  the  extreme  points  of  the 
country. 

Thus  there  are  transverse  lines  running  from  Tokyo 
through  Takasaki  to  Niigata  and  starting  from  Kyoto 
through  Komehara  to  Kanazawa  and  Fukui.     Likewise 


GATE    LEADING   TO    THE    PRECINXTS   OF    lEMITSU. 


LAKE    CHISEXJL 


To  face  p.  245. 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE  245 

from  Tokyo  a  central  line  going  to  Fukushima  and  thence 
to  Akita  rejoins  Aomori  and  the  line  from  Sendai-Tôkyô. 

The  island  of  Yezo  has  some  lines  which  render  the 
journey  across  the  country  much  less  arduous  than 
formerly  ;  from  Hakodate  to  Otaru  and  Sapporo,  thence  to 
the  centre  of  the  isles  at  Asahigawa,  from  there  to 
Tokachi,  and  other  extensions  are  in  project. 

So  far  the  island  of  Shikoku  is  not  very  well  provided 
with  railways  ;  two  small  lines  alone  exist  at  Takamatsu 
and  Tokushima. 

Travelling  by  railway  in  Japan  is  always  very  pleasant,  » 
as  the  landscape  through  which  one  passes  is  picturesque 
and  animated,  and  when  one  has  journeyed  through  the 
greater  part  of  the  Empire  of  the  Rising  Sun  in  this  way 
at  the  cherry  season  or  the  chrysanthemum  season,  in  the 
midst  of  a  smiling  nature  and  people,  one  yields  oneself 
captive  to  this  charm,  until  one  has  learned  to  know  it 
more  deeply.  The  European  traveller  who  does  not  care  to 
eat  the  buffet  hento  {hentô — that  is  déjeuner — consists  of 
a  clean  little  white  box  cootaining  rice  and  condiments, 
sold  at  the  station  buffets)  should  bring  provisions 
with  him.  But  this  is  really  an  unnecessary  complica- 
tion: it  is  quite  easy  to  habituate  oneself  to  eating  à  la 
Japanese,  and  what  is  served  is  always  very  clean  and 
appetising. 

IV 

The  electric  tramways  in  the  towns  and  outside  them 
have  for  some  time  undergone  great  extension,  and  at  the 
present  time  there  are  eight  electric  tram  companies,  each 
having  a  capital  of  500,000  yen  at  least  :  the  total  capital 
invested  amounting  to  37,075,000  yen.  Also  other  com- 
panies, whose  capital  is  respectively  below  500,000  yen,  and 


246         THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 

together  compose  a  total  figure  of  40,143,110  yen,  have 
been  formed  ;  but  many  of  them  are  no  longer  in  active 
operation.  To  give,  however,  an  idea  of  the  relatively 
large  number  of  electric  lines  engaged  in  transport  in  the 
whole  of  Japan,  I  add  this  complete  list  : — 

Company  of  electric  trams  in  Tokyo. 

,,        in  Kei  Hin  (Tokyo,  Yokohama). 
,,         ,,  Yokohama. 
,,         ,,  Odawara. 
„         ,,  Hanshin. 
,,  „  Kyoto. 

„  Nagoya. 
.,         .,  Ise. 

All  these  lines  are  open  for  traffic  ;  lines  in  construction 
but  not  yet  open  for  traffic  are  the  following  : — 

Company  of  electric  trams  in  Kobe. 

,,  ,,  Tokyo  Narita  (Kei-Sei). 

,,  ,,  Kyoto-Osaka  (Kei  Han). 

,,  ,,  Kei-so. 

>i  »  Oji. 

„  „  Gan-Hau. 

,,  ,,  Musashi. 

„  „  Mito. 

,,  ,,  Mino-o. 

,,  ,,  Buso. 

,,  ,,  Nara. 

M  „  Awaji. 

»  .,  Niigata. 

,,  ,,  Shimonoseki  (Bakan). 

,,  ,,  Hachiman  (Kyoto). 

,,  ,,  Mino. 

„  „  Ina. 

„  ,,  Yawata  (Pukuoka). 

„  ,,  Horinouchi. 

,,  ,,  Shingu. 

,,  ,,  Otsu-Kyôto  (Kei-Shin). 

„  ,,  Jômô. 

,, ,  ,,  Shintatsu. 

,,  ,,  Okayama. 

,,  ,,  Shiobara, 

„  „  Môji. 

,,  ,,  Maizuru. 

„  ,,  Toban. 

„  ,,  Ot-su. 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  247 

The  length  of  these  lines  extends  from  13  to  45 
English  miles  ;  the  electric  tramway  company  of 
Kyoto,  for  example,  is  15  miles  long,  and  that  of  Tokyo 
45  miles. 


The  tariff  on  Japanese  railways  is  not  very  high  ; 
it  is,  however,  a  little  higher  than  the  French  tariff. 
To  a  distance  of  50  miles  the  traveller  pays  1  sen 
65  centièmes  (less  than  one  penny)  ;  up  to  100  miles 
the  rate  is  1  sen  40  centièmes  a  mile  ;  up  to 
200  miles  it  is  1  sen  10  centièmes  a  mile  ;  up  to  300 
miles  the  rate  is  0"20  centièmes;  and  below,  0"82  centièmes 
(rather  less  than  a  halfpenny).  This  is  the  tariff  for  third 
class  ;  to  obtain  it  for  second-class  you  must  add  one- 
fourth  to  the  charge  made  for  third  class,  and  for  the 
first-class  rates  add  three-fourths  of  the  third-class  charge. 
Each  traveller  by  first  class  has  the  right  to  take  100  lbs. 
(Japanese  ;  kin  =  1^  lbs.)  of  luggage  ;  each  second-class 
traveller,  60  lbs.  (kin)  ;  each  third-class  passenger  30  lbs. 
free  of  charge. 

For  the  transport  of  goods,  speaking  roughly,  the  tariff 
is  from  2  to  5  and  7  rin  (10  rin  =  1  sen)  per  ton,  but 
for  grains,  forage,  sugar,  flour,  beer,  oranges,  charcoal, 
potatoes,  the  tariff  ranges  from  2  sen  per  ton  up  to  50 
tons,  to  1  sen  per  ton  beyond  300  tons,  with  an  inter- 
mediary rate  of  1  sen  7  rin  for  100  tons,  and  1  sen  4  rin 
for  200  tons. 


CHAPTEE  XVI 

Mines  in  antiquity  ;  in  the  fifteenth  century  :  in  the  modern  epoch — 
II.  Geology,  soil — III.  Working  of  the  mines — IV.  Some  of  the  coal 
mines — V.  Petroleum — VI.  Various  sorts,  plumbago,  sulphur — 
VII. — Miners  aud  miners'  regulations — VIII.  Administration  of  the 
mines^IX.  The  mines  in  1908:  Socialism  of  the  workmen — X. 
Yield  of  copper  and  coal. 


At  the  same  time  that  maritime  traffic,  railways,  and 
industry  generally  were  being  developed,  the  special 
industry  of  mining  became  also  one  of  the  most 
important  factors  of  the  national  wealth. 

Nothing  definite  is  known  concerning  the  origin  of  the 
mining  industry  in  Japan,  but  history  records  that  ever 
since  the  seventh  or  eighth  century,  gold,  silver,  copper, 
coal,  and  petroleum  were  discovered  and  drawn  from  the 
earth.  At  the  commencement  of  the  ninth  century,  the 
gold  mines  of  Ikuno,  the  silver  mine  of  Handa,  the  argen- 
tiferous lead  mine  of  Hosokura,  and  the  two  copper  mines 
of  Yoshioka  and  Osaruzawa  had  been  opened.  In  the 
fifteenth  century  and  in  the  time  of  the  Shogun  Toku- 
gawa,  important  mines  were  being  exploited,  amongst 
others  the  gold  and  silver  mines  of  Sado,  Innai,  Kamioka, 
Mozumi,  Serigano,  Yamagano,  and  Shikakago  ;  the  silver 
and  copper  mine  of  Kosaka,  the  copper  mines  of  Ashio, 

248 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  249 

Besshi,  Ani,  Arakawa,  Hibira,  and  Omodani  ;  the 
antimony  mine  of  Ichinokawa  ;  the  argentiferous  lead  of 
Km-atani  ;  the  tin  mine  of  Taniyama  ;  the  iron  mine  of 
Kamaishi  ;  and  the  coal  mines  of  Miike,  Takushima  and 
Akaike.  It  will  be  understood  that  in  the  remote 
epochs,  the  working  of  mines  was  carried  out  in  a  very 
rudimentary  fashion  and  no  one  concerned  himself  with 
the  investing  of  it  with  any  kind  of  method.  It  was 
only  after  the  Imperial  restoration  in  1868  that  the 
mining  industry  made  any  real  progress  in  Japan. 

The  Government,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  perceiving  truly 
with  what  utility  and  profit  for  the  State  the  extraction 
of  the  wealth  in  the  subterranean  soil  might  be 
accompanied,  protected  and  encouraged  the  development 
of  the  mining  industry  and  furthermore  secured  from 
abroad  mining  engineers,  geologians,  and  experts.  At 
the  same  time  the  Government  undertook  at  its  own  cost 
the  working  of  the  principal  mines,  applying  to  this 
working  Western  methods,  with  the  object  of  rendering 
their  mines  models  for  those  who  wished  to  conduct 
mining  industries  on  their  own  account.  Since  this  time 
great  progress  has  been  accomplished,  and  the  yield  of 
the  mines  has  not  ceased  to  increase,  notably  the  gold 
and  silver  mines  of  Sado  and  Ikuno,  and  the  silver  mine 
of  Innai.  When  the  private  companies  achieved  a 
sufficient  development  the  Government  passed  over  to 
them  a  certain  proportion  of  the  mines  under  its  control, 
only  reserving  to  itself  those  adjudged  necessary  for  the 
national  enterprises.  Finally  it  issued  laws  and  regula- 
tions which  were  put  into  practice  in  1892,  definitely 
fixing  the  rights  of  proprietors  and  exploiters  of  mines, 
and  ensuring  them  aid  and  protection.  Young  engineers 
who  had  returned  from  Europe  with  special  knowledge  of 


250         THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

the  different  departments  were  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
various  mining  services,  and  they  achieved  rapid  progress 
in  this  branch  of  Japanese  industry. 


II 

The  geological  formation  of  Japan  may  be  indicated  as 
below,  taking  100  as  total. 

I.   Formation  op  the  Soils. 

Azoic  period      3"78 

Paleozoic  period          10'24 

Secondary  period         ...  7"95 

Tertiary  period           45'84 

II.  Igneous  Eocks. 

Ancient  period  1V21 

Modern  period  20-92 

Total        ...        10000 

In  other  terms,  the  proportion  of  sedimentary  soils  in 
relation  to  igneous  rocks  is  that  of  2  to  1  for  the  total 
superficies,  whilst  in  the  sedimentary  formations — those 
which  belong  to  the  tertiary  period — they  are  in  the 
proportion  of  1  to  2. 

The  geological  formations  of  the  Japanese  islands 
could  be  defined  as  the  arc  of  a  circle  extending  from  the 
island  of  Yezo  on  the  north-west  to  Kyushu  on  the 
south-west  :  by  the  Ryûkû  chain  and  the  mountainous 
system  of  Formosa  :  the  arc  of  the  north-south  circle 
and  the  chain  of  the  Ryûkû  incline  towards  the  south- 
west. The  exterior  line  of  the  curve,  that  facing  east, 
is  comparatively  perfect,  from  the  standpoint  of  geological 
formation,  the  lands  composing  it  being  distributed  in 
symmetrical  fashion. 

The  inner  side  of  the  curve — that  which  faces  west — is 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE  251 

very  complex  in  its  geological  formation  and  abounds  in 
crevasses,  in  displaced  strata  and  eruptive  rocks.  Owing 
to  these  circumstances,  the  distribution  of  valuable  ores 
and  the  position  and  state  of  the  deposits  are  peculiar 
to  each  side  of  the  arc. 

Speaking  generally,  veins  of  mineral  are  found  in  the 
region  situated  inside  the  curve,  and  also  in  the  volcanic 
rocks  or  the  strata  crossing  it,  whilst  mineral  strata  are 
found  in  still  larger  numbers  in  the  exterior  region  of  the 
arc.  At  Formosa  the  outer  curve  faces  east,  and  the 
formation  is  comparatively  symmetrical  except  in  the 
north,  however,  where  it  spreads  itself  out  owing  to  a 
steep  incline  which  separates  it  from  Eyûkù  :  it  is  in  this 
northern  district  that  numerous  veins  of  ore  are  to  be 
found. 

Several  layers  of  ore  show  themselves  clearly  defined 
in  certain  districts  level  with  the  sea. 


Ill 

The  principal  mines  in  working  order  to-day  are  : — 

Gold  mines. — Hashidate,  in  Echigo  ;  Yamagano,  at  Satsuma  ;  Zuihô  and 

Kinkwaseki,  in  Formosa. 
Auriferous  Silver  Mines. — Aikawa,  at  Sado  ;  Ikuno,  at  Tajima  ;  Innai,  at 

Ugo  ;  Ponshikaribetsu,  in  the  island  of  Yezo. 
Copper  Mines. — Ashio,  in  Shimotzuke  ;  Osaruzawa,  Ani,  and  Arakawa,  in 

Ugo  ;  Okoya,  in  Koga  ;  Obiye,  at  Bitchu. 
Lead  Mines. — Hosokura,  in  Rikuzen  ;  Kamioka,  in  Hida. 
Antimony  Mines. — Ichinokawa,  at  lyo. 
Tin  Mines. — Taniyama,  in  Satsuma. 

Of  all  the  mines  in  Japan  productive  of  metals,  the 
copper  mines  are  the  richest,  and  new  ones  are  discovered 
fairly  frequently. 

Japanese  copper  is  peculiar  in  the  sense  that  it  contains 
more  or  less  gold  and  silver. 


252  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

The  principal  mines  other  than  those  producing  metals 
are  coal  and  petroleum.  Japanese  coal  is,  as  a  rule, 
bituminous,  the  principal  veins  being  found  in  the 
tertiary  soils.  At  the  same  time  some  anthracite  is 
extracted  from  secondary  strata  in  the  provinces  of 
Nagato,  Kii,  and  Higo,  but  they  are  insignificant  in 
quantity  and  value. 

The  rich  deposits  of  coal  are  found  in  the  new  strata 
of  the  tertiary  soil,  the  principal  being  those  of  the 
island  of  Kyushu  and  the  island  of  Yezo  and  of  the 
provinces  of  Hitache  and  Iwaki. 

The  carboniferous  deposits  of  Kyushu  include  the 
provinces  of  Chikuzen  and  Buzen,  Chikugo  (Miike)  and 
Hizen. 


IV 

Hokkaido  (island  of  Yezo). — The  coal  mines  of  Sorachi 
were  the  first  discoveries  in  the  basin  of  the  Ishikari.  In 
the  memoirs  of  Matsura,  who  made  a  complete  exploration 
of  Hokkaido  and  the  other  regions  of  the  north  of  Japan 
in  1855,  he  makes  mention  of  the  trace  of  a  coal  mine 
on  the  banks  of  the  Sorachi  river.  Some  three  years 
later  an  individual  named  Kimura  discovered  another 
carboniferous  bed  at  Poronai,  where  he  was  occupied  in 
cutting  the  trees.  But  it  was  an  American,  Mr.  Lyman, 
who  was  entrusted  with  definite  prospecting. 

In  1876  the  Direction  of  the  Colonisation  of  Hokkaido 
entrusted  to  this  engineer  the  task  of  prospecting  in  the 
coal  districts  of  Sorachi,  Poronai  and  the  neighbourhood. 
His  report  announced  the  presence  of  coal  in  the  district 
of  Yubari.  In  1879  they  made  an  excavation  at  Poronai, 
but  it  was  not  till  the  end  of  1883  that  the  extraction 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  253 

was  regularly  commenced.  From  this  time  onwards  till 
1890  the  Government  worked  the  mine  on  its  own  account  ; 
but  in  this  year  it  sold  the  mines  of  Sorachi,  Ikushum- 
betsu,  and  Yubari  to  the  Eailway  and  Coal  Company  of 
Hokkaido  (Hokkaido  Tanko  Tetsudo  Kwaisha)  which 
had  just  been  formed.  Ever  since  this  company  has 
carried  on  the  working. 

Coal  mines  exist  in  the  two  districts  of  Yubari  and 
Sorachi,  in  the  province  of  Ishikari. 

The  largest  veins  are  at  Yubari  :  they  extend  to  the 
length  of  5  miles,  with  a  depth  ranging  from  6  to 
25  feet. 

At  Sorachi  they  found  there  were  13  veins  existing, 
each  measuring  6  feet  in  depth. 

At  Poronai  twenty  beds  were  discovered  of  different 
length  and  depth,  but  only  five  of  them  could  be 
worked. 

The  yield  is  of  good  quality,  and  that  of  Sorachi 
and  Yubari  can  be  utilised  for  the  making  of  gas  and 
coke. 

These  mines  are  worked  in  the  European  way  and 
employ  about  4,000  workmen.  The  coal  is  brought 
to  the  ports  of  Otaru  and  Mororan,  when  four  steam- 
ships belonging  to  the  company  transport  it  to  its 
destination. 

Chiku  Ho. — The  coal  mines  of  Chiku  Ho  produce  more 
than  half  of  the  coal  of  the  whole  Empire.  The  coal  is 
of  medium  quality  and  bituminous.  In  certain  places, 
owing  to  the  presence  of  volcanic  deposits,  the  coal  has 
been  changed  naturally  into  coke.  Although  the  exact 
date  of  the  discovery  of  these  mines  is  not  known,  it  is 
extremely  probable  that  they  have  been  known  for  at 
least  two   hundred   years,  although  it  was  not   till  the 


254  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  that  the  working  of  the 
coal  was  started. 

At  this  period  the  working  was  limited  to  the  upper 
layer,  and  it  was  not  till  1881  that  a  machine  worked  by 
steam  was  installed  at  the  Katsuno  Mine,  and  the  extrac- 
tion begun  upon  the  European  method.  This  method 
was  successfully  applied  in  the  mines  of  Namozada, 
Shin  nin,  Meiiji,  and  Akaike. 

In  1889  certain  parts  of  the  coal  mines  at  Tagawa  and 
Kurate  were  reserved  to  the  State.  Then  the  Minister  for 
Agriculture  and  Commerce,  by  whom  the  employment  in 
mines  was  controlled,  issued  regulations  to  encourage  the 
formation  of  big  companies  to  undertake  their  working. 
Ultimately  the  railway  traversing  the  island  of  Kyushu 
created  valuable  facilities  for  bringing  coal  to  the  ports 
of  Moji  and  Wakamatsu. 

The  coal  mines  of  Chiku  Ho  stretch   over  the   five 
districts  of  Tagawa,  Kurate,  Kaho,  Onga,  Kasuya,  and 
measure  28  miles  from  north  to  south,  and  from  9J  miles 
to  15J  miles  from  west  to  east. 
But  the  coal  extracted  is  not  of  superior  quality. 
Miike. — The  discovery  of  the  coal  mines  dates  back 
four  hundred  years.    From  1873  to  1887,  the  Government 
undertook  the  working,  but  in  1890  the  Mitsui  Company 
obtained  the   concession   and  worked  the  mine  with  an 
assiduity   that   has    not    slackened   to    this   day.     This 
latter  extends  to  a  length  of  9^  miles  north-south  and 
about  2^    miles   east-west  in    the    two  prefectures    of 
Fukusha  and  Kumamoti.     The  coal  is  a  little  superior  to 
the  preceding  one  described,  and  can  be  used  for  the 
making  of  gas  and  coke.     The  mine  employs  6,000  men, 
and  it  is  able  to  furnish  4,000  tons  in  twenty-four  hours. 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  255 

Takashima. — The  coal  deposit  of  Takashima  has  been 
known  for  two  centuries.  In  1817  the  mines  were 
in  the  hands  of  the  Daimyô  of  Saga,  but  at  this  period 
no  one  troubled  himself  about  coal  mines,  because  of 
ignorance  of  their  use.  It  was  not  till  1867  that  an 
attempt  was  made  for  the  first  time  to  explore  the  mine 
properly.  Six  years  later  the  Government  repossessed 
the  mine,  and  handed  it  over  to  Count  Goto.  In  1881  it 
was  bought  by  the  Mitsui-bishi  Company,  who  are  still 
in  possession  of  it. 

It  started  with  a  yield  of  1,200  tons,  and  then  began 
to  decline,  but  in  1898  new  veins  were  discovered  at 
Hajima. 

The  galleries  are  found  for  the  most  part  below  the 
sea-bed,  which  necessitates  constant  ventilation.  The 
ventilators  at  Takashima  furnish  the  mine  with  50,000 
cubic  feet  of  air  a  second  ;  and  those  of  Hajima, 
120,000  cubic  feet. 

The  mine  is  situated  in  the  district  of  Nagasaki, 
and  includes  the  three  little  islands  of  Takashima, 
Hajima,  Nakanoshima,  situated  7  miles  from  the 
port  of  Nagasaki.  Since  1881  it  has  supplied  more  than 
7,000,000  tons  of  coal. 


V 

Petroleum  in  Japan  is  found  almost  exclusively  in 
the  territories  of  the  tertiary  formation,  at  Hokkaido, 
and  in  the  provinces  of  Echigo,  Shinano,  and  Tôtômi. 
The  principal  centre  of  production  is  the  province  of 
Echigo,  which  includes  the  six  principal  mines  at 
Higashiyama,  Nishiyama,  Amaze,  Niitsu,  and  Kubiki, 
the  two  first  of  which  are  the  most  important. 


256         THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 

At  Higashiyama  the  oil  is  generally  found  at  a  depth 
of  from  66  feet  to  99  feet. 

The  wells  of  Amaze  are  2,562  feet  deep  and  have  the 
best  quality  of  oil,  but  unfortunately  the  supply  is 
beginning  to  diminish  greatly.  Nishiyama  produces  an 
inferior  oil  to  that  of  Amaze,  the  layer  of  petrol  being 
found  at  a  depth  of  660  feet.  Petrol  was  discovered  in 
the  province  of  Echigo  in  the  seventh  year  of  the 
Emperor  Tenchi  (a.d.  668).  The  chronicles  relate  that  at 
this  period  "  burning  earth''  and  "  burning  water"  were 
presented  to  the  Imperial  Court,  but  it  was  not  known 
what  use  could  be  made  of  them.  It  was  only  in  1875 
that  the  mines  of  Kubiki  and  Niitsu  assumed  a  com- 
mercial importance.  The  Japanese  Company  for  petrol 
started  in  1890,  extracting  oil  according  to  the  European 
process.  They  then  discovered  the  beds  of  slate  in  Naga- 
mine,  Kamada,  Hire,  and  Urase,  which  enabled  them  to 
develop  their  enterprise  and  to  succeed  in  obtaining,  in 
1902,  about  500,000  barrels  of  petroleum. 


VI 

Plumbago  in  Japan  exists  in  the  slaty  rocks  in 
sheets,  or  in  blocks  in  the  stratified  rocks,  and  it  has 
been  somewhat  overlooked  up  to  now,  although  there  is 
undoubtedly  a  large  quantity  of  it.  Japan,  being  an 
essentially  volcanic  country,  is  very  rich  in  sulphur 
and  immense  deposits  of  it  are  to  be  found.  The 
principal  sulphur  mines  are  found  in  the  province  of 
Eikuchu  at  Tsurugizan,  and  in  Hokkaido  at  Iwaonobori 
and  Ransu. 

The  alluvial  deposits  are  of  two  kinds  :  gold  in  the 
districts  of  Yesashi,  in  Hokkaido,  and  iron  at  Chûgoku. 


THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE  257 

The  former  is  loosened  from  auriferous  quartz  rocks 
belonging  to  the  Secondary  Period  and  deposited  in  the 
beds  of  the  rivers  ;  the  second  arises  from  the  decomposi- 
tion of  iron  ore. 


VII 

There  are  probably  approximately  in  Japan  at  the  pre- 
sent time  250,000  miners.  This  figure  includes  miners, 
porters,  diggers,  smelters,  the  men  employed  to  attend 
to  the  machines,  fires,  and  pumps.  The  majority  of 
them  are  content  with  their  lot  ;  they  generally  belong 
to  the  district  in  which  the  mine  is  situated.  There  are, 
however,  a  certain  number  of  them  who  have  come  from 
distant  provinces  with  their  families  and  are  installed 
there  for  the  rest  of  their  days.  With  the  incessantly 
increasing  population  in  Japan,  there  is  never  any  lack 
of  manual  labour.  As  a  rule  the  miners  live  in  houses 
supplied  by  their  employers  ;  those  having  families  in 
separate  rooms,  and  the  single  ones  in  a  kind  of  large 
dormitory.  Needless  to  say  these  installations  are  very 
swiftly  made  and  that  the  workmen  and  workwomen 
are  exceedingly  badly  lodged  and  even  worse  fed.  The 
food,  which  is  very  inadequate,  is  sold  to  them  by  the 
mine  authorities — it  must  be  admitted  at  a  very  low  cost — 
but  they  are  prohibited  from  purchasing  food  elsewhere. 
The  object  of  this  is  to  prevent  their  demanding  higher 
wages,  which  the  workmen  would  be  compelled  to  do  if 
they  purchased  their  food  properly  in  the  open  market, 
as  the  wages  they  are  actually  receiving  would  not  be 
sufficient  for  this.  Here,  then,  as  in  the  industrial  world, 
the  sweating  system  is  in  force  in  its  full  strength,  and  it 
must  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  Japanese  population  are 

17 


258         THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 

literally  starving,  that  they  submit  to  it  without  a 
murmur.  They  will  finish,  probably,  by  revolting,  and 
the  outburst  of  anger  which  manifested  itself  two  or 
three  years  ago  at  the  Ashio  mines,  when  the  manager 
was  overpowered,  was  undoubtedly  the  beginning  of  a 
general  movement  against  the  system  that  is  imposed 
upon  the  workmen. 

It  is  not  that  the  proprietors  do  not  guarantee  against 
the  risks  of  accident  and  sickness,  nor  charge  themselves 
with  the  cost  of  the  funeral  in  the  event  of  death  :  but 
they  take  only  the  minimum  of  responsibility,  from 
which  it  would  be  exceedingly  difficult  to  escape.  The 
able-bodied  workmen  and  working  women  are  shame- 
fully oppressed  and  receive  barely  enough  to  subsist 
upon. 

Up  to  1890  the  Government  reserved  to  itself  the 
right  of  working  a  mine  under  its  own  control,  or  of 
assigning  the  mining  concession  to  any  one  guaranteeing 
an  annual  rental  ;  but  since  then  the  system  of  per- 
manent concessions  has  come  into  force  :  and  it  is  in  this 
way,  owing  to  the  formation  of  big  mining  companies, 
that  mining  exploitation  has  seen  an  ever-growing 
development. 

In  the  beginning  a  foreigner  was  prohibited  from  work- 
ing a  mine  in  Japan  :  he  could  not  even  take  part  in  a 
Japanese  mining  society,  with  the  result  that  the 
privilege  of  exploiting  was  exclusively  reserved  to 
Japanese  subjects.  The  law  was  modified  in  1900,  and 
a  foreigner  was  allowed  to  form  a  mining  company  either 
alone  or  in  conjunction  with  the  Japanese,  provided, 
naturally,  that  the  company  formed  with  a  view  of 
exploitation  was  in  conformity  with  Japanese  laws  and 
regulations.    I  do  not  think  that  Europeans  have  ever 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE         259 

profited  by  this  concession.  Japanese  law  does  not 
recognise  the  right  of  priority  of  discovery  ;  and  the 
right  to  begin  boring  operations  is  granted  to  the 
person  who  has  first  presented  the  demand.  It  is  in 
force  for  one  year  and  is  renewable  for  another  year  if 
required. 

And  finally,  the  right  of  assaying  can  neither  be 
assigned  nor  mortgaged  ;  it  is  only  the  concession  that 
can  be  sold  or  mortgaged. 

Formerly,  the  concession  was  only  granted  for  fifteen 
years.  This  circumstance,  added  to  the  impossibility  of 
mortgaging  the  mine  which  at  that  time  prevailed, 
operated  in  stultifying  the  development  of  the  mining 
industry.  But  now  that  the  two  legislative  defects 
have  been  removed,  the  concessioners  and  capitalists 
are  in  a  position  to  invest  large  sums  in  subterranean 
exploitation. 

The  area  of  a  mining  concession  extends  to  10,000 
tsubo  (1  tsubo  =  nearly  49  yards),  for  coal,  and  3,000 
tsubo  for  other  minerals  ;  and  in  both  cases  it  can  be 
extended  to  600,000  tsubo.  In  the  event  of  there 
being  more  than  two  concessioners  in  association,  the 
maximum  limit  may  exceed  600,000  tsubo. 

The  granter  is  obliged,  before  beginning  drilling  opera- 
tions, to  submit  his  plans  to  the  head  of  the  Department 
for  the  Inspection  of  Mines.  The  concession  can  be  with- 
drawn by  the  Minister  for  Agriculture  and  Commerce  if 
operations  are  suspended  for  more  than  a  year.  Every  six 
months  the  concession-holder  is  obliged  to  furnish  a 
report  upon  the  condition  of  the  mines,  and  everything 
connected  with  the  addition  or  distribution  of  the  conces- 
sion must  receive  the  approval  of  the  Inspector  of  the 
Mining  Department. 


260  THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 

With  regard  to  the  owner  of  the  land  npon  which  the 
mine  is  situated,  he  has  to  receive  a  fair  compensation 
for  the  hire  of  the  ground  and  an  indemnity  for  the 
installation  of  wells,  machinery,  tramways,  railroads  ;  he 
can  demand  the  repurchase  of  his  land  at  the  end  of 
three  years.  If  difference  arise  between  him  and  the  con- 
cession-holders, the  dispute  is  first  carried  to  the  Inspector 
of  the  Mining  Department,  then  to  the  Minister  of  Agri- 
culture and  Commerce,  and  finally  to  the  courts.  With 
the  view  of  protecting  public  and  private  interests, 
special  regulations  concerning  the  administration  of 
mining  have  been  issued  and  are  put  in  force  by  the 
Mining  Department  Inspector  and  by  the  Minister  for 
Agriculture  and  Commerce.  The  principal  articles  are 
as  follows  : — 

The  safety  of  the  buildings  inside  the  mine  and 
outside  it. 

Protection  of  the  life  and  health  of  the  workmen. 

Protection  of  the  surface  and  of  public  interests. 

Everything  that  might  be  injurious  to  the  interests  of 
the  public  can  be  suppressed  by  order  of  the  Inspector, 
under  penalty  of  suspension.  The  use  of  explosives,  the 
arrangements  for  ventilation,  the  subterranean  operations, 
the  construction  of  chimneys,  boilers,  foundries,  &c.,  are 
subject  to  the  strictest  regulations  for  the  avoidance  of 
accidents. 

In  addition  a  special  protection  is  granted  to  the 
workers  ;  the  nature  of  the  work,  the  hours  of  work,  the 
labour  of  the  women,  and  the  miners,  are  all  most 
minutely  regulated,  and  the  concession  holder  is  com- 
pelled (at  least  on  paper)  to  conform  to  the  decision  of 
the  Inspector  of  the  Department  of  Mines. 

The  taxes  that  have  to  be  paid  on  mining  concession 


THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE  261 

are  of  two  kinds  :  a  concession  tax  and  the  tax  on 
the  raw  material.  The  former  is  30  yen  per  1,000  tsubo, 
and  the  second  is  1  per  cent,  of  the  value  of  the 
material. 

This  latter  is  fixed  according  to  the  price  ruling  in  the 
principal  markets.  There  is,  however,  an  official  quota- 
tion for  gold,  silver,  copper,  lead,  antimony,  coal,  and 
petroleum. 

The  search  for  ore  in  the  alluvial  sand  is  subject  to  a 
somewhat  different  regime.  Here,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
the  right  of  priority  is  accorded  to  the  owner  of  the  land 
in  which  the  ore  is  found.  But  if  the  owner  does  not 
wish  to  work  the  ore  he  is  compelled  to  give  permission 
to  those  willing  to,  on  condition,  of  course,  that  he  shall 
be  properly  remunerated.  Only  Japanese  subjects  are 
allowed  to  conduct  their  investigations  in  the  alluvial 
soil;  no  European,  whether  on  his  own  account  or  on 
account  of  a  company,  is  [permitted  to  undertake  this 
operation. 

YIII 

The  administration  of  the  mines  exhibits  naturally 
special  characteristics  which  are  strikingly  different  from 
the  administration  generally  of  other  industries.  The 
officials  who  are  in  charge  of  matters  connected  with 
the  management  of  the  mines  must  possess  special  and 
expert  knowledge  upon  all  the  questions  relating  to 
them.     They  must  know  in  effect — 

The  regulations  concerning  the  maintenance  of  a 
concession  ;  its  withdrawal,  right  of  transfer,  and  the 
pecuniary  responsibilities  for  the  concession. 

The  regulations  relating  to  the  drilling  operations,  the 


262  THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 

approval  of  plans,  the  shutting  down  of  the  surface, 
and  to  the  association  of  various  concession  holders,  or 
to  the  division  of  one  concession  amongst  various 
companies. 

The  regulations  relating  to  the  specific  management  of 
mines,  those,  namely,  referring  to  the  interests  of  the 
public  and  those  of  the  vsrorkmen  ;  to  the  safety  of  the 
mines  and  to  the  solidity  of  the  buildings. 

They  must  also  be  prepared  to  judge  impartially  all 
the  disputes  v^^hich  may  arise  between  the  owners  of  the 
ground  and  the  concession  holders  of  the  mines.  The 
administration  of  mining  affairs  is  divided  into  two 
sections  : — 

I.  The  central  government  of  the  mines  attached  to 
the  Minister  for  Agriculture  and  Commerce. 

II.  Five  directions  of  a  local  kind,  controlled  by  five 
inspectors  nominated  by  the  same  Minister.  The  local 
administrations  have  the  power  to  supervise  all  mining 
matters  within  their  jurisdiction,  and  they  deal  with 
them  all  either  on  their  own  responsibility  or  by 
referring  them  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and 
Commerce,  according  to  the  gravity  of  the  case. 


IX 

The  total  number  of  demands  for  mining  concessions 
in  1908  was  4,663.  This  was  considerably  less  than  in 
the  preceding  years,  and  included  in  this  number  there 
are  many  demands  for  concessions  that  have  come  to 
nothing.  The  total  figure  for  mining  productions  for 
this  same  year  was  103,167,395  yen,  a  diminution  of 
3,657,626  yen  on  the  preceding  year. 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE  263 

Coal  :  14,468,669  tons,  with  a  value  of  61,963,500  yen  ; 
Copper:  67,805,639  lb.,  with  a  value  of  2,242,983  yen; 
Petroleum  :  1,639,357   koku   (1   koku  =  a    little    less    than   5  English 
bushels,  capacity),  6,475,460  yen; 

Silver  :  31,259  kwamme  ;  value,  4,265,717  yen  ; 

Gold  :  829  kwamme,  value  4,147,485  yen  ; 

Iron— Pig  :  39,983  tons,  and  steel  1,668  tons,  yielding  1,927,245  yen; 

Sulphur  :  53,815,077  lb.,  yielding  766,816  yen. 


The  number  of  mining  companies  at  the  end  of  1908 
reached  205,  with  a  total  capital  of  175,809,650  yen 
(capital  invested,  119,390,800  yen). 

There  were  the  beginnings  of  a  strike  in  the  coal- 
mines of  Takashima,  and  also  in  some  other  mines  ; 
but  they  were  without  importance,  although  it  cannot 
be  denied  that  the  mining  workmen  at  the  present  time 
are  beginning  to  imitate  their  confrères  in  Europe,  and 
demand  higher  wages  and  better  conditions  of  life. 

Socialism  has  made  its  debut  in  Japan,  and  so  far  its 
prospects  are  not  brilliant  ;  but  there  is  no  doubt  that 
the  people  in  general  and  the  working  man  in  particular 
are  suffering  financially  from  the  burdensome  results  of 
two  wars  sustained  in  the  course  of  ten  years.  Glory  is 
expensive,  and  Japan  is  not  rich.  The  workman  was  the 
first  to  strike,  and  indeed  his  lot  is  a  most  lamentable 
one,  and  the  Japanese,  who  are  not  wilfully  blind,  are  the 
foremost  in  recognising  this.  The  director  of  the  School 
of  Industry  at  Tokyo,  for  example,  does  not  hesitate,  in  a 
long  article  published  by  the  Ghu  ô  ho  ron  Bevieiv,  to 
demand  that  there  should  be  more  protection,  and  better 
measures  for  the  preservation  of  health  and  morality 
for  the  working  classes.  In  two  hundred  communities 
of  workmen  which  he  examined  he  found  frightful 
corruption  and  deplorable  morals.  The  protection  of 
minors,  especially  of  young  girls,  did  not  exist.     Every 


264  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

one  lived  anyhow,  like  animals.  The  working  women 
are  penned  up  in  big  rooms,  and  often  forbidden  to 
go  out  more  than  once  a  week  ;  the  men  are  herded 
together  in  other  rooms.  They  are  all  treated  like  a  lot 
of  wretched  cattle,  and  live  accordingly.  The  married 
working  men  who  live  in  the  towns  seem  to  show  very 
little  concern  for  their  own  belongings. 

Socialism  has  already  penetrated  the  Army.  Having 
found  well-prepared  ground  in  the  case  of  the  wretched 
toilers,  it  has  now  reached  the  barracks,  and  has  com- 
menced the  distribution  of  subversive  pamphlets  to  the 
recruits.  The  desertion  of  soldiers  in  groups  has  already 
taken  place. 

As  Japan  becomes  more  and  more  an  industrial  country 
it  will  ere  long  possess  a  large  working-class  population, 
with  which  it  will  be  compelled  to  reckon.  This  multi- 
tude at  present  lacks  a  leader,  everything  being  in  process 
of  formation,  but  when  the  day  arrives  that  they  become 
conscious  of  their  strength,  and  have  a  leader  who  is 
intelligent  and  practical,  the  working  classes  will  be  able 
to  impose  their  own  conditions.  Will  they  at  this 
moment  be  wise  and  calm,  or  carried  away,  as  so  many 
others  in  Europe,  by  fallacious  and  vain  promises,  or  use 
violence  to  bring  about  the  golden  age  which  has  been 
promised  them?  ("Future  of  Tonkin,"  1909). 


In  1907,  the  most  recent  year  for  which  we  have  com- 
plete statistics,  the  productiveness  of  the  copper-  and  coal- 
mines, the  two  descriptions  of  mines  that  may  be  con- 
sidered as  the  most  important  in  Japan,  was  distributed 
as  follows  : — 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 


265 


Copper. 


Mines. 

500  grammes  =  rather  mor 

Arakawa  (Akitaken)  ... 
Ani       

Ashio  (Toehigi) 
Beshi  (Gheme) 
Dôgamaru  (Shimane) 
Furogura  (Akita) 
Hebera  (Miyazaki)     ... 
Hidate  (Ibaraki) 
Hiragama  (Gifu) 
Hisaichi  (Akita) 
Homansan  (Shimane) 
Ikuno  (Hyôgo) 

Innai  (Akita) 

Itsuki  (Kumamoto)  ... 
Kano  (Fukushima)  ... 
Komaki  (Akita) 

Kosaka 

Kusakura  (Niigata)   ... 
Nidzusawa  (Iwate)    ... 
Nagamatsu  (  Yamagata) 
Oharasawa  (Iwate)    ... 
Obie  (Okayama) 
Okoya  (Ishikawa) 
Omodami  (Fukui) 
Omori  (Shimane) 
Otori  (Yamagata) 
Osarazawa  (Akita) 
Sasagaya  (Shimane)... 
Takane  (Gifu) 
Takura  (Yamaguchi) 
Tsubaki  (Akita) 
Yakuki  (Fukushima) 
Yoshioka  (Okayama)... 
Yusenji  (Ishikawa)  ... 


Productiveness 

Belonging  to. 

in  Japanese  lbs 

of  600  grammes. 

oir.)  ;  600  grammes  =  1  lb.  3è  oz. 

Mitsubishi 

..       1,256,428 

Furukawa 

...       2,089,321 

— 

..     10,660,029 

Sumitomo 

...       8,911,895 

Hori    ... 

807,943 

Furukawa 

772,652 

Naito  ... 

..       1,435,755 

Kuhara 

..       1,355,280 

Yokoyama 

..       1,050,331 

Mitsubishi 

..       1,201,908 

Hori    ... 

528,933 

Mitsubishi 

..       1,511,289 

Furukawa 

433,954 

Itsuki... 

249,820 

Kano  ... 

720,167 

Mitsubishi 

101,443 

Fujita 

..     12,041,857 

Furukawa 

501,445 

— 

850,036 

— 

460,698 

Suito  ... 

200,025 

Sakamoto 

..       1,176,751 

Yokoyama     . 

..       1,078,402 

Mitsubishi 

383,459 

Furukawa 

390,396 

— 

199,925 

Mitsubishi 

..       1,937,183 

Hori    ... 

235,388 

Asada  ... 

175,377 

Mitsubishi 

249,821 

Takeda 

270,882 

Yakuki 

298,328 

Mitsubishi 

..       1,435,755 

Takenouohi 

718,264 

Consequently  Japan  produced  in  1907,  54,697,242 
Japanese  pounds  of  copper,  or  23,232  English  tons. 

After  the  United  States  of  America  this  is  the  greatest 
contribution  that  is  known  throughout  the  globe,  copper 


266 


THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 


being  one  of  the  principal  products  of  exportation  in 
Japan. 


Coal. 
Poronai  (Hokkaido) ... 

Yubari 

Sorachi 

Iriyama  (Fukushima) 

Uchigo  (Fukushima) 

Onoda  

Ojô       

Takashima  (Nagasaki) 
Akasakaguchi  (Saga) 

Wochi 

Yoshitani       

Kitakara         

Kamiyamada  (Pukuoka) 

Otsuji 

Miike 

Onoura  

Shin  iri  

Fujidana        

Mannoura 

Yoshio 

Namadzudu 

Yamano  

Meigi 

Tadakuma 

Kaneda  (Fukuoka)  ... 
Hokoku  (Pukuoka)  ... 
Tagawa  (Pukuoka)  ... 
Akaike  (Pukuoka) 
Otô  (Pukuoka) 
Futase  (Pukuoka)  ... 
Furukawa  (Pukuoka) 


Belongs  to. 
Hokkaido  Co, 


Iriyama 
Iwaki  Co. 

Ojô  Oo. 
Mitsubishi 
Takatori 
Mitsubishi 
Yoshitani  Co, 


Mitsubishi 

Kayejima 

Mitsui... 

Kayejima 

Mitsubishi 

Mitsui... 


jima 
Ase 

Mitsubishi 
Mitsui... 
Yosukawa 
Sumitomo 
Mori    ... 
Hiraoka 
Mitsui... 
Yasukawa 
Hara    ... 
Government 
Furukawa 


Production 

in  Tons. 
163,013 
480,803 
202,930 
204,537 
145,515 
188,951 

86,289 
183,816 
139,273 
163,013 
219,858 

86,840 

90,186 

212,629 

1,482,451 

593,154 

438,572 

96,321 
207,372 
216,207 
244,463 
138,850 
416,421 

67,195 
271,328 
161,920 
486,478 
182,469 
179,130 
366,128 
376,681 


I  have  only  given  here  the  production  of  the  principal 
mines,  those  producing  more  than  100,000  tons. 

Japanese  coal  is  very  inferior  in  quality  to  all  other 
known  coal,  and  its  consumption  will  always  be  limited 
to  the  Chinese  Sea  ;  and  this  will  be  at  an  end  if  the  dis- 
covery is  made,  which  will  probably  be  the  case,  of  mines 
of  superior  coal  in  Chinese  and  Indo-Chinese  territories. 


CHAPTEE  XVII 

I.  Japanese  finance  :  General  statements — II.  Present-day  organisation — 
III.  The  Budget,  taxes — IV.  National  Debt  :  loans — V.  Local 
finances — VI.  Banks — VII.  Assurance  Companies — VIII.  Doctors, 
public  hygiene,  public  relief. 


In  the  chapter  dealing  with  finance  we  have  now  come 
to  the  most  difficult  side  of  Japanese  economics.  Here 
all,  indeed,  is  very  vague  ;  for  the  Japanese,  who  conceal 
whatever  they  can  from  Europe,  conceal  their  financial 
afi'airs  more  than  their  military  secrets.  Japan  is  poor, 
extremely  poor;  the  necessities  of  life  are  lacking  through- 
out the  country,  and  money  which  may  be  found  there 
is  used  to  pay  for  the  coupons  of  the  National  Debt  and 
the  purchases  from  foreigners.  Yet  according  to  the 
Japanese  publications  the  financial  situation  is  very 
satisfactory.  Now,  we  must  take  into  consideration  a 
peculiarity  unsuspected  by  those  who  do  not  know 
Japan  :*  the  inhabitants  of  the  islands  of  the  Eising 
Sun  will  deprive  themselves  of  everything,  and  will 
submit  to  the  payment  of  the  heaviest  taxes  in  order 
to  help  the  Government  to   show  Europe    that  Japan 

*  All  the  Japanese  submitted  to  voluntary  privations  during  the  war 
against  Russia  ;  a  great  many,  indeed,  deprived  themselves  of  necessities 
in  order  to  contribute  to  the  war  expenses. 

267 


268         THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 

is  in  a  prosperous  condition.  Japanese  patriotism,  it 
must  be  admitted,  is  animated  by  no  foolish  pride,  but 
what  it  desires  most  of  all  is  to  be  able  to  cut  a  fine 
figure  in  the  sight  of  Europe.  But  the  strained  cord 
breaks  at  last,  and  already  it  has  been  found  necessary 
to  increase  the  Budget  of  1908-1909  by  a  super-tax  on 
beer  and  sugar  and  the  consumption  of  petrol.  The 
Japanese  have  been  playing  this  game  for  a  long  time, 
and  the  power  of  paying  these  taxes  is  rapidly 
diminishing.  On  the  other  hand,  how  is  a  new  loan 
to  be  obtained  ?  What  guarantees  would  the  Japanese 
Government  give  if  it  were  obliged  to  have  recourse 
to  the  foreigner  for  money? 

II 

The  Japanese  financial  system,  as  it  exists  to-day,  does 
not  date  from  far  back  ;  naturally  the  financial  system 
soon  after  the  Imperial  Kestoration  was  extremely  compli- 
cated, and  there  existed  no  regular  method  of  financial 
administration.  The  old  system,  under  which  each 
Daimyo  had  his  own  financial  arrangements  and  taxes, 
had  to  be  swept  away  entirely.  Here,  as  in  all  other 
administrations,  centralisation  was  necessary  ;  and  this 
was  no  easy  matter.  However,  in  1871,  the  unification 
of  the  financial  system  was  established  by  the  decision 
that  all  the  accounts  of  the  different  ministerial  bodies 
and  public  administrations  should  be  published  hence- 
forth under  the  direction  of  the  Treasury  ;  and  that  the 
various  departments  should  no  longer  have,  as  was 
formerly  the  case,  their  own  accounts  independent  of 
one  another.  Then,  in  1875,  an  account  of  receipts 
and  expenditure  was  drawn  up,   the  first  real  Budget 


THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE  269 

of  the  Empire.  In  1880,  the  Court  of  Expenditure  was 
created,  under  the  direct  control  of  the  Emperor.  All 
these  changes  were  not  made  without  considerable  upsets 
and  disturbances,  and  it  was  the  glory  of  the  earlier 
statesmen  that  they  had  carried  through  a  reform  so 
grave  and  so  important  for  the  country  as  financial 
reform.  Two  more  years  were  required  after  the 
creation  of  the  Treasury  and  the  Court  of  Expenditure 
to  establish  on  a  solid  foundation  the  system  of  central- 
ised accounts  and  auditing.  However,  by  the  beginning 
of  1882,  all  irregularities  had  disappeared,  and  the 
foundation  of  the  Bank  of  Japan  (Nippon  Ginko) 
completed  the  work  of  reorganisation.  By  1886  the 
Budgets  were  published,  and  at  the  time  when  the 
Constitution  was  promulgated  in  1889,  the  law  dealing 
with  finances  was  amended,  and  thenceforward  the 
Budgets  had  to  be  drawn  up  by  the  Minister  of  Finance 
and  approved  of  by  Parliament. 

Ill 

The  ordinary  Budget  of  the  year  1908-1909  amounted 
to  619,958,339  yen,  with  an  extraordinary  and  supple- 
mentary Budget  of  3,839,331  yen,  making  a  total  of 
623,797,670  yen — a  figure  never  before  reached.  The 
ordinary  Budget  was  as  follows  : — 

Eeceipts         611,043,048  yen 

Expenditure 615,958,339   „ 

Deficit  4,915,291  „ 

This  deficit  was  covered  by  increased  taxation  under 
three  heads  : — 

On  sake  and  beer  545,343  yen 

On  sugar  2,819,444   „ 

On  the  consumption  of  petrol  ...     1,550,504  „ 

Total 4,915,291  yen 


270         THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

Here  are  the  different  taxes  and  revenues  of  the 
Empire  which  go  to  make  up  the  National  Budget.* 

Land  Tax. — The  land  tax  is  proportional  to  the  value 
of  the  land  taxed.  The  value  is  determined  on  the 
following  basis  :  Capital  is  calculated  according  to  the 
net  revenue  or  the  rent  of  the  land,  and  then  it  is 
written  down  in  the  official  registers  of  the  Land  Survey. 
The  land  tax  is  paid  as  follows  :  On  mortgaged  land  by 
the  mortgagee.  On  land  let  on  lease  for  a  period  of  more 
than  100  years  by  the  leaseholder,  who  has  acquired  all 
rights  to  the  land  ;  on  all  other  land  by  the  owner  of  the 
property. 

The  annual  assessment  of  the  land  tax  is  fixed  at 
2|  per  cent.  (1  per  cent,  in  Hokkaido)  of  the  value  of  the 
land,  calculated  as  described  above.  But  the  laws  of 
1904  and  1905  have  added  for  the  different  classes  of 
landed  properties  the  following  super-taxes  : — 

Urban  properties  which  are  built  upon,  17^  per  cent, 
of  their  value. 

Kural  properties  which  are  built  upon,  6 J  per  cent, 
of  their  value. 

Properties  not  built  upon,  3  per  cent,  of  their  value. 

Tax  on  Incomes. — The  present  state  of  the  law  which 
regulates  the  Income  Tax  may  be  summed  up  thus  : 

The  tax  is  payable  by  : — 

{a)  Persons  who  have  their  domicile,  or  have  resided 
at  least  one  year,  in  any  part  of  the  Empire  where  the 
said  law  is  in  operation. 

(6)  Persons  who,  without  being  domiciled  in  Japan,  or 
residing  there,  have  property  or  a  business,  either  indus- 
trial or  commercial,  or  who  have  an  interest  in  the  public 

•  According  to  the  Financial  and  Economic  Year-book  of  Japan,  pub- 
lished by  authority  of  the  Ministry  of  Finance. 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 


271 


funds  or  hold  shares  in  the  localities  to  which  the  law 
applies.  These  persons,  however,  are  only  liable  for  the 
tax  in  respect  of  the  income  derived  from  these  particular 
sources. 

The  amount  of  the  tax  is  fixed  according  to  the  follow- 
ing scale  : — 

First  class  :  On  incomes  of  persons  of  legal  age,  2^ 
per  cent.  Further  (a)  Joint-stock  companies  and 
co-operative  joint-stock  societies,  having  at  least  21 
shareholders  or  shareholders  and  members,  pay  from 
3|  per  cent,  to  a  total  of  6^^^  per  cent.  (6)  Other 
persons  of  legal  age  : — 


Incomes  below  5,000  yen,  2  per  cent,  up  to  4J  per  cent. 

From  5,000  to  10,000  yen,  2J 


10,000  to  15,000 
15,000  to  20,000 
20,000  to  30,000 
30,000  to  50,000 
50,000  to  100,000 


2à 
3 

5| 
7à 


,  100,000  and  beyond  10 

Second  Class  :  Interest  on  bonds  in  public  loans  or 
shares  in  companies  established  in  the  localities  where 
the  law  is  in  operation  at  the  rate  of  2  per  cent. 

Third  Class  :  Incomes  derived  from  sources  other  than 
those  referred  to  above  : — 


100,000  yen  and  above,  20^  per  cent. 


50,000 

17 

30,000 

iqi9 

20,000 

111 

15,000 

Q   9  ' 

10,000 

7J 

5,000 

6 

3,000 

Hx.      " 

2,000 

I               3x*{n>     >i 

1,000 

»                   3  2%        „ 

500 

Ol  3 

1                    ^ÏZ        » 

300 

»          > 

2 

272         THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 

The  following  are  exempted  from  taxation  : — 

{a)  Soldiers'  and  sailors'  pay  in  time  of  war. 

(6)  Gratuities  and  pensions  granted  to  the  widows  and 
orphans  of  soldiers  and  sailors,  and  the  pensions  of 
soldiers  and  sailors. 

(c)  The  expenses  of  travelling  incurred  by  students, 
students'  bursaries,  and  other  sums  received  from  the  State. 

{d)  The  income  of  an  adult  who  does  not  carry  on  a 
business  for  actual  profit. 

(e)  The  chance  profits  which  do  not  properly  accrue 
from  a  business  carried  on  for  profit. 

(/)  The  incomes  that  are  derived  from  estates,  busi- 
ness, or  industrial  concerns  and  other  professions,  either 
abroad  or  in  localities  where  the  law  is  not  in  operation — 
with  the  exception,  however,  of  the  income  of  an  adult 
who  has  his  principal  place  of  business  in  a  locality  sub- 
ject to  the  operation  of  this  law. 

ig)  Premiums  and  dividends  paid  by  a  person  of  legal 
age  who  is  already  taxed  according  to  the  present  law. 

Special  laws  exempt  from  income  tax  interest  derived 
from  shares  in  the  National  Debt,  as  well  as  interest  from 
Treasury  Bonds  issued,  or  hereafter  issued,  in  conformity 
with  the  law  of  1904  regarding  Treasury  Bills. 

Licences. — These  taxes,  first  levied  in  1896,  apply  to  all 
classes  of  industry  and  commerce.  As  the  tax  is  levied 
according  to  the  value  of  the  business,  the  nature  and 
quality  of  the  business  have  to  be  taken  into  careful  con- 
sideration. Thus,  in  order  to  insure  the  equitable  assess- 
ment of  the  tax,  the  assessment  is  based  upon  the  amount 
of  capital  engaged,  the  total  amount  of  sales,  the  rental 
value  of  the  buildings,  the  number  of  clerks,  artisans, 
workmen,  the  sum  total  of  commissions  and  contracts. 
In  the  year  1908-1909  this  tax  yielded  21,854,307  yen. 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE  273 

Succession  Duties. — The  law  which  regulates  succession 
duties  was  promulgated  in  January,  1905,  and  came  into 
operation  in  the  April  following.  According  to  this  law 
succession  duties  apply,  whenever  succession  takes  place, 
to  all  the  property  constituting  the  estate  which  is 
situated  in  a  locality  where  the  law  is  in  operation,  and 
there  is  no  need  to  trouble  about  finding  out  whether  the 
place  overture  of  the  succession  is  or  is  not  in  Japan,  or 
whether  the  de  cujus  is  or  is  not  a  Japanese  subject.  But 
the  nature  of  the  property  subject  to  the  tax  and  the  rate 
of  valuation  of  this  property  vary  according  as  the 
domicile  of  the  de  cujus  is  or  is  not  in  a  locality  where 
the  law  is  applicable. 

These  dues  yielded  1,530,814  yen  in  1908-1909. 

In  1908-1909  the  following  returns  were  yielded  : 


Drink  tax         

71,809,684  yen 

Shoyu  tax         

4,070,184     „ 

Sugar  tax          

16,293,911     „ 

Tax  on  consumption  of  petrol 

1,563,089     „ 

Tax  on  drugs  used  in  trade 

204,640     „ 

Tax  on  mines 

2,041,193     „ 

Tax  on  exchange          

2,041,643     „ 

Tax  on  use  of  bank-notes        

1,168,234     „ 

Tax  on  passengers  by  train,  boat,  and 

electric  tramways            

2,337,834      „ 

Tax  on  textiles 

19,462,196     „ 

The  last-named  tax  was  imposed  in  1905,  and  is  levied 
in  the  following  manner  :  On  woollens  15  per  cent,  of 
the  value  ;  on  all  other  materials  10  per  cent. 

Tonnage  duties,  at  the  rate  of  5  sen  per  ton,  yielded 
528,027  yen. 

Custom  Duties. — In  1859,  when  the^.  first  commercial 
treaties  were  concluded  with  the  Western  Powers,  custom- 
houses were  established  and  duties  were  levied  for  the 
first  time  in  Japan,  in  certain  open  ports  chosen  for  this 

18 


274         THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 

purpose.  The  customs  tariff  of  this  period  was  entirely 
determined  by  the  treaties,  but  it  was  only  in  force  for  a 
very  short  time,  for  the  whole  tariff  was  entirely  revised 
in  1866.  This  revised  tariff,  which  continued  the  Japanese 
custom  duties,  lasted  for  thirty-three  years  without  any 
modification,  for  it  was  in  operation  until  the  year  1899, 
a  period  when  the  commercial  and  navigation  treaties 
with  foreign  Powers  were  in  force,  and  to-day  it  still 
operates.  The  system  of  customs  duties  which  it  inau- 
gurated had  a  serious  influence  on  Japan's  policy  and 
national  finances. 

The  putting  into  force  of  the  commercial  treaties, 
revised  by  the  foreign  Powers  in  1899,  made  it  possible  to 
bring  into  operation  the  general  tariff,  which,  combined 
with  the  new  treaty  tariffs,  formed  the  Japanese  customs 
tariff.  It  was  at  this  period  that  export  duties  were 
entirely  abolished. 

In  1904  the  need  of  money  led  to  the  imposition  of 
super-taxes  on  the  customs  duties  as  well  as  on  other 
duties,  and  from  October  1,  1906,  the  tariff  in  the  case 
of  many  articles  applies  to  specific  duties. 

For  the  period  1905-1906  the  customs  duties  yielded  the 
sum  of  41,410,920  yen. 

Apart  from  receipts  under  the  above  headings,  there  are 
others,  such  as  the  revenue  from  timber,  which  yielded 
for  the  period  1908-1909  the  sum  of  20,393,538  yen. 

Then  there  are  monopolies  :  the  monopoly  on  tobacco 
yielded  for  the  same  period  (1908-1909)  the  sum  of 
41,723,003  yen,  that  on  camphor  62,387  yen,  on  salt 
13,193,163  yen. 

The  revenue  from  the  State  railways  was  formerly 
included  in  the  general  Budget  ;  since  1908  it  has  been 
separated  and  a  special  account  for  the  railways  has  been 


THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE  275 

established.     This  is  divided  into  three  sections  :  capital 
account,  revenue  account,  reserve  account. 


IV 

In  order  to  face  its  liabilities  incurred  by  its  innumerable 
enterprises  for  the  national  rebuilding  and  the  adoption 
of  European  ideas,  Japan  has  been  obliged  to  contract 
various  loans. 

In  1908  the  total  amount  of  these  loans  was 
2,243,000,000  yen,  that  is,  £224,300,000— a  considerable 
burden  for  the  country,  considering  its  resources.  The 
National  Debt  (internal  debt)  amounted  to  1,078,194,000 
yen,  and  the  foreign  debt  to  165,701,000  yen.  The  Eussian 
War  was  the  principal  cause  of  these  Japanese  loans. 
Indeed,  before  the  war  the  public  debt  was  535,459,000 
yen,  and  after  the  war  it  was  1,530,263,000  yen.  As 
Eussia  refused  to  pay  any  war  indemnity  whatsoever, 
Japan  was  obliged  to  bear  all  the  expenses  of  the 
expenditure,  and  hence  it  is  still  obliged  to  borrow. 

The  last  loans  contracted  with  foreign  countries  were  as 
follows  :  4  per  cent,  loan,  issued  in  London  and  New  York 
in  March,  1905,  £30,000,000  sterling,  underwritten  at  £90 
per  £100  share  at  par,  capital  to  be  paid  in  fifteen  years  by 
lottery  from  February  14,  1910,  to  February  15,  1925 
The  payment  of  the  loan  is  guaranteed  by  the  Government 
on  the  net  profits  from  the  tobacco  monopoly. 

The  second  loan,  of  £30,000,000  sterling  at  4|  per  cent., 
was  issued  in  London,  New  York,  and  Berlin  in  July, 
1905  ;  it  is  repayable,  like  the  preceding  loan,  in  fifteen 
years,  from  July  9,  1910,  to  July  25,  1925,  and 
likewise  guaranteed  by  the  tobacco  monopoly,  the  earlier 
loan  having  a  prior  claim. 


276         THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

A  loan  of  £25,000,000  sterling  at  4  per  cent,  was  issued 
in  November,  1905,  in  London,  Paris,  New  York,  and 
Berlin,  at  £90  per  £100  share,  repayable  at  par  between 
January  1,  1920,  and  January  1,  1931. 

A  loan  of  £23,000,000  sterling  at  4  per  cent,  was  issued 
in  March,  1907,  in  London  and  Paris,  at  £99  10s.  per  £100 
share,  to  be  paid  back  at  par  in  twenty-five  years  between 
March  12,  1922,  and  March  12,  1947. 

If  we  add  to  these  the  loan  for  the  redemption  of 
the  railways,  the  loan  to  consolidate  the  debts  on  the 
railways  purchased  by  the  State,  the  loan  for  extraordinary 
expenses,  the  loan  in  1897  for  expenses  in  connection 
with  the  construction  of  railways,  Treasury  Bills  issued 
at  the  time  of  the  Eussian  War,  the  redemption  of  the 
hereditary  pension  of  the  former  régime,  the  loan  for 
Public  Works,  the  loan  for  the  railways  of  Hokkaido,  the 
various  other  national  loans,  it  is  clear  that  the  financial 
situation  of  Japan  is  deeply  involved.  Its  ideas  of  glory 
and  military  greatness  have  carried  it  too  far.  However, 
it  seems  that  Japan  has  considered  the  matter,  and  it  now 
declares  that  it  requires  nothing  but  peace  to  develop  its 
wealth  and  re-establish  its  finances. 


V 

According  to  the  law  now  in  force  departmental  expenses 
are  defrayed  by  means  of  departmental  contributions, 
grants  from  the  Treasury,  and  from  various  taxes.  The 
departmental  contributions  are  obtained  by  additional 
taxes  on  direct  taxes,  or  by  taxes  on  certain  articles 
selected  for  this  purpose.  To  the  first  class  belong  the 
land  tax,  income  tax,  licences  ;  to  the  second,  taxes  on 
rents  and  various  taxes. 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE  277 

The  towns  and  the  communes  make  over  for  the 
pa5rment  of  their  expenses  the  revenues  accruing  from 
their  lands,  rents,  taxes  and  various  other  receipts,  and  if 
these  receipts  are  not  sufficient,  municipal  or  communal 
taxes  may  be  levied,  or  payments  in  kind  imposed. 

When  a  local  Assembly  decides  to  raise  a  loan,  it  must 
at  the  same  time  arrange  the  terms  of  the  loan,  the  rate 
of  interest,  and  the  mode  of  liquidation.  The  redemption 
of  loans  contracted  by  towns  and  communes  should  begin, 
at  latest,  three  years  after  the  date  of  their  issue,  and  the 
loan  should  be  entirely  redeemed  in  thirty  years. 

In  order  to  contract  a  loan  the  local  Assemblies,  the 
municipalities,  or  the  villages  must  obtain  the  authorisa- 
tion of  the  Minister  of  Finance  and  the  Minister  of 
the  Interior. 

VI 

The  regulations  relating  to  banks,  promulgated  in 
November,  1872,  were  based  upon  the  system  in  force  in 
the  United  States.  Four  national  banks  were  created  in 
conformity  with  the  new  regulations,  which  stipulated, 
among  other  things,  the  redemption  of  bills  in  money  at 
par  ;  but  the  scarcity  of  money  and  the  excessive  number 
of  bills  (or  bank-notes)  issued  soon  caused  the 
latter  to  fall  far  below  par.  The  Government  then 
conceived  the  idea  of  altering  the  regulations  in  1879  and 
of  authorising  the  banks  to  use,  as  guarantee  of  notes, 
the  bonds  of  the  Hereditary  Pensions,  increasing  these 
immediately  to  the  amount  of  170,000,000  yen,  the 
bank-notes  of  these  banks  thus  becoming  redeemable 
by  State  bonds.  This  arrangement  succeeded,  and  in 
the  course  of  a  few  years  153  banks  were  established, 
designated  by  the  numbers  1  to  153. 


278         THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

In  1880,  at  the  time  when  the  Bank  of  Japan  (Nippon 
Ginko)  was  established,  the  153  national  banks  were 
deprived  of  the  right  to  issue  bank-notes  ;  most  of  the 
banks  were  then  closed;  some  were  converted  into 
private  banks  which  still  exist. 

The  Bank  of  Japan  was  founded  in  1882  ;  its 
authorised  capital  was  at  first  10,000,000  yen,  to-day  it  is 
30,000,000  yen.  It  possesses  the  privilege  of  issuing 
bank-notes  to  the  amount  of  120,000,000  yen,  guaranteed 
by  the  reserve  fund  of  gold  and  silver  which  it  possesses 
and  by  Government  Bonds.  It  is  highly  probable  that 
this  reserve  in  coin  only  exists  on  paper,  all  the  money 
that  Japan  has  passing  into  the  hands  of  foreigners. 
Consequently  the  bank-notes  of  the  Bank  of  Japan  have 
no  value  except  that  given  to  them  by  the  confidence  of 
the  citizens  of  Nippon. 

The  principal  banks  are  Yokohama  Sho  Ki'n  Ginko 
Bank — a  cash  bank,  founded  in  1880  with  a  capital  of 
24,000,000  yen;  the  Nippon  Kogio  Ginko  Bank;  the 
Industrial  Bank  of  Japan,  with  a  capital  of  17,500,000 
yen  ;  the  Mortgage  Bank  of  Japan,  with  a  capital  of 
10,000,000  yen;  the  Bank  of  Formosa;  the  Bank  of 
Hokkaido  (on  the  island  of  Yezo). 

Besides  these  large  establishments  there  also  exist  a 
certain  number  of  special  banks,  notably  the  First, 
Third,  Fifteenth,  Twentieth,  Twenty-seventh,  Hundredth, 
Three-hundredth  Bank — survivals  of  the  153  National 
Banks  of  which  mention  has  already  been  made,  which 
have  become  private  establishments.  Then  there  are 
the  Kawasaki  Ginko,  established  by  M.  Kawasaki  ;  the 
Imamura  Ginko  ;  the  Meiji  Shôgiô  Ginko  ;  the  Tel 
Koku  Shôgiô  Ginko,  &c. 

Several   European  banks  have  been  established  and 


THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE  279 

carry  on  business  in  Japan  :  the  Anglo-Japanese  Bank, 
the  offices  of  which  are  at  Yokohama  ;  the  Chartered 
Bank  of  India,  AustraHa,  and  China  at  Yokohama,  Kobe, 
and  Nagasaki  ;  the  German  Asiatic  Bank  at  Yokohama, 
Kobe,  and  Nagasaki  ;  the  Hong  Kong  and  Shanghai 
Banking  Corporation  at  Yokohama,  Kobe,  Nagasaki  ;  the 
International  Banking  Corporation  at  Yokohama,  Kobe, 
Nagasaki  ;  the  Kusso-Chinese  Bank  at  Yokohama  and 
Nagasaki.  There  was  formerly  a  French  bank,  the 
Comptoir  d'Escompte  of  Paris  ;  but  the  regulations  for 
the  French  banks  are  so  strict  that  it  is  impossible  for 
them  to  carry  on  business  in  the  East,  and  the  Comptoir 
d' Escompte  long  ago  closed  its  branch  establishment. 

VII 

The  first  Japanese  insurance  companies  came  into 
existence  in  1881,  but  it  was  not  until  1890,  after  the 
promulgation  of  the  commercial  code,  that  regulations 
were  drawn  up  for  the  inspection  and  control  of  such 
companies.  In  1900  a  law  came  into  operation  which 
enacted  that  an  association  or  society  of  this  kind  must 
have  a  capital  of  at  least  100,000  yen;  at  the  same  time 
regulations  were  issued  concerning  the  inspection  of 
European  insurance  companies  established  in  Japan  and 
dealing  with  Japanese  business. 

All  these  offices  are  English  or  American,  namely,  the 
Union  Assurance  Society,  Guardian  Assurance  Company, 
North  British  and  Mercantile  Insurance  Co.,  Phoenix 
Assurance  Co.,  Yorkshire  Insurance  Co.,  Sun  Fire 
Insurance  Co.,  Scottish  Union  and  National  Insurance 
Co.,  Hong  Kong  Fire  Insurance  Co.,  Equitable  Life, 
New  York  Life.  One  French  company — the  Union — 
figures  in  the  list. 


280  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

VIII 

There  are  about  40,000  doctors  in  Japan,  who  all 
employ  European  methods.  The  diseases  of  Japan  are 
almost  the  same  as  those  in  Europe,  except  dysentery, 
which  rages  with  almost  absolute  regularity  every 
summer. 

Hygienic  methods  are  most  skilfully  applied  by  the 
authorities,  and  in  epidemics  I  do  not  believe  that  any 
other  country  takes  so  many  precautions  as  Japan,  or 
applies  sanitary  regulations  with  so  much  punctuality 
and  attention  to  details.  Those  travellers  who  have 
disembarked  at  the  ports  of  Kobe  and  Yokohama  during 
an  epidemic  of  plague  or  cholera  know  something  about 
this  matter. 

Many  of  the  Japanese  die  of  consumption,  and  that  is 
why  the  north  of  Japan  is  not  much  populated.  The 
Japanese  endures  the  heat  better  than  the  cold,  and  his 
temperament  would  incline  him  towards  the  equatorial 
regions  whence  his  Malay  ancestors  have  come. 

The  hospital  system  and  system  of  public  relief  are  in 
very  good  order,  and  the  hospitals  managed  in  European 
fashion  are  very  clean. 

Works  of  charity  at  first  were  generally  in  the  hands 
of  Christians,  either  foreigners  or  natives  ;  in  spite  of  the 
interest  shown  by  the  Imperial  Court  and  especially  by 
the  Empress  herself,  in  all  good  works,  the  Buddhists 
and  Shintoists  were  long  in  directing  their  efforts 
towards  the  well-being  of  their  miserable  countrymen. 
However,  among  the  charitable  societies  of  all  kinds  a 
few  Buddhist  societies  are  being  established  in  different 
parts  of  the  Empire. 


CHAPTEK   XVIII 


I.  Political  Japan  and  its  future. — II.  Commercial  and  industrial  Japan 

and  its  future. 


Japan,  thanks  to  labour  and  effort,  has  to  a  great 
degree  incorporated  Western  civilisation.  Above  all,  it  has 
comprehended  and  adopted,  as  being  of  first  importance, 
the  military  mechanism,  because  its  temperament,  its 
atavism,  and  its  education  have  all  contributed  to  this 
result  ;  and  it  has  become  the  principal  factor  in  the 
peace  or  wq,tc  of  the  extreme  East.  It  has  secured  a 
footing  on  the  continent.  Will  it  remain  there?  It  seeks 
clearly  the  domination  of  Eastern  Asia,  and  it  is  with 
this  aim  that  it  augments  its  military  force.  And  are 
not  still  more  battleships  in  course  of  construction? 
And  is  not  its  Intelligence  Service  extended  all  over  Asia 
in  the  most  extraordinary  way  from  India  to  Mongolia  ; 
I  have  seen  Japanese  in  Tonkin,  on  the  frontiers 
of  Kouang-Si,  at  Yunnan,  in  Burmah.  I  have  seen 
them  at  Bhamo,  Foo,  rejoining  compatriots  who  had 
arrived  at  Yong  Tchang  by  way  of  Siam  and  the  Thai 
countries. 

281 


282         THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

All  the  routes  of  Asia  are  as  well  known  to  them  as 
those  of  their  own  country.* 

But  it  is  possible  that  the  insular  situation  of  Japan 
may  prevent  it  from  carrying  out  its  grand  schemes  suc- 
cessfully. History  shows  us  that  it  is  impossible  for  an 
insular  people  to  establish  itself  in  a  continent  when  the 
enemy  is  resolute  in  preventing  this,  and  the  English, 
who  so  long  trampled  upon  the  soil  of  France,  at  the 
close  were  driven  off  it.  Once  China  has  become 
awakened  (and  she  is  beginning  to  open  her  eyes),  she 
too  will  not  stop  till  she  has  driven  the  Japanese  to 
the  sea. 

Moreover,  will  the  Japanese  Government  always  have 
its  hands  free,  will  it  not  first  of  all  be  hampered  by 

*  Japan  pursues  unswervingly  the  aim  upon  which  it  has  deter- 
mined, to  become  a  great  World  Power,  the  greatest  in  Asia.  It  has 
planted  a  foot  in  this  continent  and  the  enterprise  is  thoroughly  to  its 
taste. 

Listen  to  what  the  War  Minister,  General  Teraoutchi,  addressed  to 
Parliament  in  March,  1908  :  "  I  am  profoundly  convinced  that  a  con- 
flict between  the  Great  Powers  will  take  place,  not  in  Europe,  but  East 
of  India  and  in  the  west  and  north  of  Japan.  Would  it  be  fitting  for 
the  Japanese  people  to  remain  passive  spectators  in  the  presence  of  such 
an  event?  "  The  Minister  added:  "In  everything  concerning  the  troops 
occupying  Manchuria,  I  maintain  that  it  would  be,  for  us,  tantamount 
to  an  evacuation  if  we  confined  ourselves  to  our  present  limits." 

It  is  not  far  from  that  to  transport  and  maintain  a  considerable  part 
of  its  army  upon  the  continent. 

It  is  true  that  at  this  moment  the  Russians,  French,  and  English 
are  friendly  to  Japan — as,  indeed,  who  is  not  ? 

But  what  are  promises  and  treaties  worth  ?  Let  us  remember  the 
beginning  of  the  last  war,  and,  above  all,  not  forget  the  ease  with  which 
Austria  violated  the  Treaty  of  Berlin.  .  ,  .  Force  appears  more  than 
ever  to  be  the  exact  meaning  of  right,  which  is  not  without  some  irony 
in  these  days  of  conferences,  arbitration,  and  international  brotherhood. 
Apostles  of  peace  and  propagandists  of  disarmament,  ye  are  the  lambs  and 
will  be  devoured. 

Never  was  the  old  axiom  more  true — "  Si  vis  pacem  para  bellum." 

Japan  wishes  for  war  and  prepares  for  it.  "  Military  France,"  April 
26,  1  09.) 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE  283 

internal  disturbances,  such  as  strikes  and  Socialism,  and 
finally  by  the  European  and  American  Powers,  who  have 
their  interests  and  mean  to  have  some  voice  upon  the 
subject  of  Asiatic  questions  ? 

Socialism,  it  is  true,  has  not  so  far  made  much  progress 
in  the  Japanese  Empire  ;  nevertheless,  it  exists  incon- 
testably  and  to  the  extent  that  the  commanders  of  the 
Army  Corps  are  obliged  to  take  measures  to  prevent  the 
distribution  of  Socialist  and  anti-military  pamphlets  in 
the  barracks.  The  working  class  is  increasing,  and  their 
conditions  are  not  always  enviable  ;  everything  is  by  no 
means  for  the  best  in  the  world  of  the  Japanese  toiler  ; 
and  in  the  event  of  a  leader  in  earnest  making  his 
appearance,  a  man  who  knew  how  to  utihse  the  mal- 
contents, with  one  stroke  the  Socialist  party,  still  chaotic, 
would  be  effectively  created. 

Moreover,  the  year  1909  was  marked  by  numerous 
strikes  ;  some  of  them  being  sufficiently  serious  to 
necessitate  the  presence  of  the  troops  to  re-establish 
order.  In  these  conflicts  between  capital  and  labour,  in 
almost  every  case  capital  emerged  victorious,  and  the 
workers,  without  organisation  or  money,  had  to  submit  ; 
but  this  is  only  the  beginning,  and  proves,  in  any  case, 
that  Japan,  no  more  than  any  other  country,  takes 
quickly  to  new  ideas. 

In  addition  to  internal  difficulties,  Japan  will  no  doubt 
encounter  others  in  the  collision  of  its  interests  with 
those  of  the  Colonising  Powers,  the  first  of  which  will 
be  Great  Britain,  the  leading  one,  who,  in  spite  of  the 
treaty  of  alliance  which  binds  her  to  Japan,  will  probably 
find  herself  under  the  necessity  of  opposing  the  too  lofty 
ambitions  of  her  vigorous  and  energetic  ally. 

Complications  have  already  arisen,  and  may  do  so  again. 


284  THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 

of  an  ever  graver  kind  between  Japan  and  the  United 
States  and  England  on  account  of  the  unceasing  immi- 
gration of  the  Japanese  *  into  Canada,  Australia,  and 
California,  where  they  constitute  strong  and  disturbing 
communities. 

II 

If  we  turn  from  political  possibilities  and  examine  the 
commercial  future  are  we  confronted  with  the  likelihood 
of  an  ever-widening  interchange  of  trade  and  an  ascend- 
ing figure  for  the  volume  of  trade. 

I  think  not.  Japan  has  nothing  to  sell  to  the 
foreigner  but  silk,  entirely  absorbed  by  France,  the 
United  States,  and  Italy  ;  tea,  exclusively  absorbed  by 
the  United  States;  copper,  a  little  rice,  and  various 
artistic  accessories;  and  it  only  purchases  raw  cotton, 
certain  kinds  of  woollen  stuffs,  and  more  particularly 
various  metals  and  supplies  for  its  army  and  navy.  The 
imitation  things  of  the  European  factory,  distributed 
in  China,  Indo-China,  and  India,  are  not  suited  to 
Europe  and  America.  It  is  not,  then,  a  customer  of  any 
importance,  and  in  Asia  is  a  competitor.  As  for  the 
French,  they  cannot  entertain  any  hopes  of  developing 
commercial  relations  with  Japan.  Their  woollen  cloth, 
formerly  purchased  in  large  quantities,  is  imitated  to- 
day in  Germany  and  Switzerland,  and  sold  much  more 
cheaply  by  these  two  countries  ;  they  have  even  begun 
to  reproduce  it  in  Japan  ;  wines,  one  of  the  chief  French 
productions,  are  not  appreciated  by  the  people  and  the 
quantity  sold  is  insignificant. 

•  Consult  on  this  subject  Dr.  H.  Loir,  "  Canada  and  the  Canadians" 
(chap,  xvi.,  "  The  Yellow  Invasion!"). — Library  Oriental  and  American, 
edited  by  E.  Guilmoto. 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  285 

So  far  as  the  metal  trade  is  concerned,  France  cannot 
supply  it,  owing  to  her  manufacturing  and  selling  more 
expensively  than  England,  Germany,  Belgium,  and  the 
United  States,  who  carry  out  the  contracts  for  Japan 
at  present. 

Japan  will  naturally  more  and  more  develop  its  trade, 
and  it  will  more  and  more  become  the  purveyor  for 
the  Asiatic  markets,  notably  the  market  of  China, 
which  needs  goods  at  low  prices  ;  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  will  become  less  and  less  a  good  customer  for 
Europe  and  America.  **  Trade  in  those  quarters  is 
getting  worse  and  more  difficult,"  a  Frenchman,  who 
knows  the  country  well  and  has  been  established  there 
forty  years,  wrote  to  me  not  long  ago.  "  Japan  is  cer- 
tainly not  lacking  in  the  qualities  of  courage,  patience, 
and  perseverance,  and  what  it  has  accomplished  in  so 
short  a  space  of  time  is  certainly  remarkable,  though 
perhaps  not  quite  so  wonderful  as  is  generally  thought, 
if  we  consider  that  it  had  everything  at  its  own  disposal 
and  had  only  to  take  what  it  wanted,  whilst  both  Europe 
and  America  assisted  it  with  all  their  strength  and  in 
every  way.  It  did  not  have  to  seek  out  for  itself,  every- 
thing being  supplied  by  others  ;  it  was  simply  for  Japan 
to  imitate  and  adapt  ;  *  but  it  deserves  praise  for  having 
invested  its  transformation  with  a  strength  of  will,  know- 
ledge, and  perseverance  of  an  extraordinary  kind." 

Considering  its  great  facility  for  imitating  and  adapt- 
ing, its  precise  memory  and  the  minute  care  it  puts  into 
everything  it  undertakes,  one  must  give  praise  to  Japan 
for  the  efforts  it  has  employed  to  raise  itself  to  the  level 

•  For  if  we  reflect  upon  this  subject,  it  wOl  be  apparent  that  it  is 
not  excessively  difficult  to  imitate  the  material  civilisation  of  the  West, 
It  was  a  question  of  patience  and  method. 


286  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

of  superior  humanity,  and  it  is  but  fair  to  recognise 
what  it  has  done  ;  but  much  is  still  lacking  to  bring  it  up 
to  the  level  of  Europe.  An  elect  number  have  succeeded 
in  transforming  themselves  more  or  less  completely,  and 
adopting  Western  standards,  but  the  mass  of  the 
population  have  not  moved  ;  and  when  the  traveller  has 
quitted  the  various  ports  or  cities  in  which  foreigners 
reside  to  penetrate  into  the  interior,  he  still  finds  the 
Japanese  as  he  was  fifty  years  ago. 


CHAPTER   XIX 


I.  The  Japanese  Colonies  :  Formosa — II,  Finance — III.  Monopolies— 
IV.  Banks — V.  Commerce — VI.  Agriculture  and  industries — VII. 
Saghalien  and  Canton. 


Japan  is  not  exclusively  to-day  confined  within  its 
islands;  it  has  overflowed,  and  after  two  fortunate 
wars  become  a  Colonial  people.  I  have  therefore  to  pass 
in  review  the  different  possessions  which  by  the  hazard 
of  war  have  fallen  under  its  domination. 

In  the  first  place  there  is  Formosa,  in  Chinese  and  in 
Japanese,  Tai  Wan.  This  great  island,  situated  on  the 
south-east  of  China,  formerly  belonged  to  the  mainland 
province  of  Fukien  ;  it  measures  250  miles  by  87^  miles. 
One  chain  of  mountains  intersects  the  island  from  north 
to  south,  and  has  many  volcanoes.  The  Chinese  estab- 
lished themselves  there  in  1430  ;  the  Portuguese  visited 
it  in  the  16th  century,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  Formosa 
owing  to  the  beauty  of  its  climate.  The  Japanese  and 
the  Dutch  founded  colonies  there  in  the  beginning  of  the 
17th  century;  but  in  1661  the  famous  pirate  Kochingo 
seized  it,  and  remained  master  of  it  till  1683,  at  which 
period  the  Chinese  recaptured  it. 

Before   entering    more   fully  into   the   statistical   and 

087 


288  THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 

economic  condition  of  modern  Formosa,  it  is  of  interest 
to  trace  the  picture  given  of  ancient  Formosa  by  the 
Jesuit,  du  Halde. 

"I  ought  to  say  something  about  this  island;  and 
owing  to  its  having  remained  unknown  for  a  long 
time  even  to  the  Chinese — though  not  far  distant  from 
them — and  that  it  was  only  under  the  last  Emperor 
Kang-hi  (1662-1722)  that  they  effected  their  entry  there, 
and  to  the  fact  that  the  government,  manners,  and 
customs  of  these  islanders  are  very  different  from  those 
of  the  Chinese,  a  somewhat  detailed  account  is  due,  as 
well  as  to  the  means  by  which  the  latter  made  themselves 
masters  of  the  island. 

"  The  whole  island  of  Formosa  is  not  under  the 
domination  of  the  Chinese.  It  is  divided  into  two  parts, 
east  and  west,  by  a  chain  of  mountains  beginning  at  the 
south  of  Cha  Ma  Ei  Teou  and  ending  properly  in  the 
northern  sea  of  the  island.  Only  the  part  west  of 
these  mountains  belongs  to  China. 

"  The  eastern  portion,  if  we  are  to  believe  the  Chinese, 
is  only  inhabited  by  barbarians.  The  country  is  moun- 
tainous, uncultivated,  and  wild.  The  character  of  the 
people,  according  to  them,  scarcely  at  all  differs  from  that 
of  the  savages  of  America.  They  depict  them  as  less 
brutal  than  the  Iroquois,  more  chaste  than  the  Indians, 
naturally  gentle  and  peaceable,  loving  one  another,  and 
mutually  helping  one  another,  and  in  no  v/ay  interested 
in  or  deriving  any  use  from  the  gold  and  silver  of  which 
it  is  said  they  have  many  mines  ;  but  they  are  extremely 
revengeful,  are  without  government,  law,  or  police,  living 
on  the  flesh  of  animals  and  fish,  and  have  no  worship 
or  religion. 

**  Even    before    they  had    subjugated    Formosa,    the 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE  289 

Chinese  knew  that  there  were  gold  mines  in  the 
island.  No  sooner  had  they  compelled  this  submission 
than  they  sought  on  every  side  for  the  mines;  and  as 
they  were  not  to  be  found  on  the  western  side,  of  which 
they  were  masters,  they  resolved  to  seek  for  them  on  the 
eastern  side,  where  they  had  been  assured  they  would 
be  found.  They  equipped  a  small  sea-boat  so  as  to  go 
there  by  sea,  not  wishing  to  endanger  themselves  in  the 
unknown  mountains,  where  they  would  have  run  the 
risk  of  their  lives.  They  were  kindly  received  by  the 
islanders,  who  generously  offered  them  their  houses, 
provisions,  and  all  kinds  of  assistance.  The  Chinese 
remained  there  about  eight  days,  but  all  the  efforts  they 
made  to  discover  the  mines  were  useless,  whether  owing 
to  the  lack  of  an  interpreter  who  could  explain  their 
design  to  the  people,  or  whether  from  fear  and  policy, 
not  wishing  to  give  offence  to  a  nation  that  had  good 
ground  for  fearing  Chinese  domination.  Whichever  the 
cause,  of  all  the  gold  they  had  set  out  to  seek  they 
only  discovered  some  ingots  lying  in  the  cabins  and 
little  regarded  by  the  poor  folk.  Here  was  a  dangerous 
temptation  for  the  Chinese.  Little  pleased  with  the 
ill-luck  of  their  expedition,  and  eager  to  have  the  ingots 
l3ring  before  their  eyes,  they  resorted  to  the  most 
barbarous  stratagem  :  they  equipped  their  ship  and  the 
kindly  people  furnished  them  with  all  that  was  necessary 
for  their  return.  Finally  they  invited  their  hosts  to 
a  grand  repast,  which  they  had  prepared,  they  said,  as 
a  proof  of  their  gratitude;  they  then  gave  the  poor 
creatures  so  much  drink  that  they  became  intoxicated, 
and  when  they  were  plunged  in  the  sleep  caused  by 
drunkenness,  the  Chinese  killed  them,  seized  the 
ingots,    and  took  to  flight.     This  cruel  action  did  not 

19 


290  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

remain  unpunished;  but  the  innocent  had  to  bear  the 
punishment  which  the  guilty  deserved.  No  sooner  had 
the  news  spread  throughout  the  eastern  part  of  the 
island,  than  the  islanders  entered  armed  into  the 
northern  part  belonging  to  China,  and  pitilessly 
massacred  any  one  they  encountered,  men,  women,  and 
children,  setting  fire  to  numberless  Chinese  dwellings. 
The  port  of  Formosa,  which  the  Chinese  possess, 
certainly  merits  the  name  they  have  given  it  ;  it  is  a  very 
beautiful  country  with  a  pure  and  soft  climate  ;  all  sorts 
of  grain  flourish,  irrigated  by  a  number  of  little  rivers 
into  which  the  mountains  separating  it  from  the  eastern 
parts  descend  ;  corn  and  rice,  &c.,  also  grow  in  abundance. 
Most  of  the  fruits  of  the  Indies  are  found  there — oranges, 
bananas,  pineapples,  guavas,  papaws,  cocoa.  There  is 
reason  to  believe  that  the  earth  would  also  be  favourable 
for  our  European  fruit  trees  if  they  were  planted  there  ; 
peaches  are  found,  also  apricots,  figs,  grapes,  chestnuts, 
and  pomegranates.  They  cultivate  a  sort  of  melon;* 
tobacco  and  sugar  grow  extremely  well  there." 

This  description  of  the  luxuriance  in  Formosa  applies 
equally  to  the  northern  part  of  the  island,  where  the 
Portuguese  landed  in  1580  and  founded  their  settlement 
of  Ki  Long.  But  the  western  side  does  not  present  any 
good  harbour,  and  ships  with  a  large  broadside  are 
exposed  to  the  double  inconvenience  of  a  bad  anchorage 
and  a  very  bad  reception  from  the  natives,  whilst  the 
eastern  side  has  nothing  but  steep  shores  and  streams 
whose  outlets  are  closed  by  alluvial  sand. 

Towards  the  end  of  1620,  the  first  year  of  the 
Emperor  Tien-Ki,  a  Japanese  squadron  came  to  Formosa. 
The  officer  commanding  it  found  the  country  entirely  un- 

•  Du  Halde,  "  Description  of  the  Chinese  Empire." 


THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE  291 

cultivated.  As  it  was  quite  suitable  for  the  establishment 
of  a  colony,  he  took  the  resolution  of  seizing  it,  and  with 
this  object  left  a  part  of  his  force  there  with  the  order 
to  take  all  the  steps  necessary  for  the  execution  of  his 
project.  About  this  same  time  a  Dutch  ship,  either  going 
to  Japan  or  returning  from  it,  was,  owing  to  a  storm, 
cast  on  Formosa  ;  they  found  there  the  Japanese,  who 
were  not  in  a  position  to  take  offence.  The  country 
appeared  delightful  to  the  Dutch,  and  advantageous  for 
their  trade. 

They  had  the  pretext  of  needing  refreshment  and  the 
various  things  necessary  for  the  repairing  of  their  ship, 
injured  by  the  storm.  Some  of  them  penetrated  into 
the  country,  and  after  having  examined  it  returned  on 
board. 

During  the  absence  of  their  companions,  the  Dutch 
did  not  touch  their  ship,  and  it  was  only  upon  their 
return  that  they  began  to  think  of  refitting  it.  They 
begged  the  Japanese,  with  whom  they  did  not  wish  to 
embroil  themselves  for  fear  of  injuriously  affecting  trade 
relations,  to  allow  them  to  build  a  house  upon  the  edge 
of  the  island  or  at  one  of  the  entrances  of  the  port,  which 
would  be  of  assistance  to  them  in  their  trade  intercourse 
with  Japan. 

At  first  the  Japanese  rejected  the  proposition,  but  the 
Dutch  urged  them  so  much,  assuring  them  that  they 
would  only  require  enough  ground  to  contain  the  flesh 
of  an  ox,  that  at  last  the  Japanese  consented.  The 
Dutch  then  took  the  flesh  of  an  ox,  which  they  cut  into 
very  small  and  very  thin  slices,  arranged  them  end  to 
end,  and  made  use  of  them  to  measure  the  ground  they 
wanted.  At  first  the  Japanese  were  a  little  angry  at 
this  trickery,  but  after  reflection  they  were  amused  with 


292  THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 

the  thing,  and,  being  appeased,  allowed  the  Dutch  to 
do  what  they  liked  with  the  land,  and  it  was  on  this  land 
that  they  built  the  fort  called  Castel  Zelandia. 

However,  in  1661  they  were  driven  out  by  Tching 
Tching  Kong,  son  of  Tching  Tehi  Long,  a  wealthy 
merchant  of  Tonkin,  who,  after  equipping  a  fleet, 
invaded  Formosa,  burned  four  Dutch  vessels  and  per- 
mitted another  one  to  withdraw  with  the  Europeans. 
He  then  constituted  a  sort  of  independent  kingdom 
in  the  island;  but  in  1682,  under  the  reign  of 
the  Emperor  Kang  hi,  Formosa  definitely  became  a 
Chinese  possession.  The  island  produces  maize,  potatoes, 
fruits,  tobacco,  indigo,  sugar-cane,  rice,  and  tea  ;  its 
principal  articles  of  exportation  are  camphor  and  coal  ; 
sulphur  and  petroleum  are  also  found.  The  Japanese, 
having  at  the  same  time  as  the  Dutch  come  into  contact 
with  the  inhabitants  of  Formosa,  also  withdrew  and 
ceased  relations  with  the  island.  In  1874  a  Japanese 
vessel  wrecked  on  the  east  coast  was  pillaged  by  the 
natives  and  the  sailors  were  massacred.  The  Govern- 
ment of  the  Mikado,  through  the  intervention  of  its 
Minister  at  Pekin,  M.  Soyeshima,  demanded  the  punish- 
ment of  the  guilty  persons,  but  Tsong  li  ya  men  replied 
that  China  disavowed  any  interest  in  the  matter,  and  the 
Japanese  Government  was  at  liberty  to  punish  the 
savages. 

An  expedition  was  then  determined  upon,  and  General 
Saïgo  Tsukumichi  placed  at  the  head  of  the  troops  ;  the 
struggle  lasted  but  a  short  time  ;  the  natives  at  once 
capitulated  and  made  peace  with  Saïgo.  But  China  then 
changed  her  mind  and  entered  on  the  scene,  and  with 
a  view  of  getting  rid  of  the  Japanese  consented  to  an 
indemnity  for  the  families  of  the  massacred  sailors. 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  293 

As  we  have  seen,  for  long  Japan  had  fixed  her  eye  "upon 
Formosa,  and  at  the  close  of  the  war  against  China  in 
1894-1895  the  island  passed  into  her  control. 

In  April,  1896,  the  military  régime  gave  place  to  a 
civil  administration,  and  about  the  same  period  the 
Japanese  Government  drew  up  a  programme,  part  of 
which  was  to  subjugate  the  aboriginal  tribes,  whilst  the 
other  part  organised  the  methods  of  communication, 
finances,  and  monopolies.  Ever  since,  the  application 
of  this  programme  has  been  pursued  uninterruptedly. 
The  finance  of  the  island  has  become  independent  since 
the  1905-1906  administration — that  is,  the  revenue  of  the 
Government  of  Formosa  suffices  for  the  administrative 
expenditure  without  any  pecuniary  assistance  from  the 
central  Treasury  :  and  even  more,  the  revenue  of  the 
island  has  even  permitted  the  defraying  of  the  cost  of 
certain  public  works,  which  they  had  to  provide  against 
by  means  of  loans.  During  the  following  years,  notwith- 
standing many  changes  supervening  in  the  character  of 
the  national  revenue,  this  latter  has  gradually  increased, 
and  the  finances  of  the  island  are  in  a  satisfactory 
condition. 


II 

Since  the  1897  to  1898  Budget,  a  special  exchequer 
has  been  assigned  for  the  finance  of  Formosa  :  it  served 
the  Government  as  the  basis  for  projecting,  and  then 
realising,  the  financial  autonomy  of  the  island.  The 
central  Treasury  must  furnish  the  large  sums  to  cover 
the  deficit  of  the  Budget  of  the  island,  and  it  is  believed 
that  this  subsidy  will  be  diminished  every  year.  Thus 
the  annual  sum  has  been  fixed  on  a  decreasing  scale,  with 


294  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

the  calculation  that  the  1909-1910  Budget  will  see  the 
financial  system  of  Formosa  absolutely  independent. 
During  the  1899-1900  administration,  and  simultaneously 
with  the  commencement  of  the  works  cited  above, 
monopolies  in  camphor  and  salt  were  created  ;  the  steam- 
ship service  between  Formosa  and  Japan  and  the  extent 
of  the  coasts  was  augmented,  which  facilitates  the  execu- 
tion of  Government  and  private  enterprise  ;  finally,  a 
regular  service  of  steamers  between  Formosa  and  China 
has  been  established. 

Whilst  in  1900  and  1901  the  administration  dedicated 
its  activities  to  developing  the  productions  and  the  in- 
dustries of  the  island  and  elaborated  laws  for  an  extension 
of  the  lines  for  steamboat  navigation,  during  the  suc- 
ceeding year  it  took  measures  to  perfect  the  sugar 
industry,  and  it  undertook  the  task  of  studying  the  old 
customs.  During  1902  and  1903  it  was  occupied  in 
introducing  improvements  into  .the  making  of  tea  and 
paper.  During  the  two  administrations,  1903-1904 
and  1904-1905,  the  land  survey  register  having  been 
accomplished,  a  public  loan  was  issued  of  rather  more 
than  4,080,000  yen,  designed  to  make  up  for  the  tax 
payable  to  the  principal  proprietor  of  an  estate,  and  the 
revenues  accruing  from  the  land  tax  increase  it  by  a 
million  yen  ;  then,  when  the  law  for  the  special  ex- 
ceptional taxes  was  put  into  force  to  meet  the  cost  of  the 
war  with  Russia,  an  excise  tax  was  imposed  on  sugar  in 
Formosa,  and  upon  woven  fabrics  there  was  a  tax  on  the 
finished  goods  ;  and  in  this  way  they]succeeded  in  realising 
equality  in  the  imposition  of  taxes  and  in  securing  for  the 
isle,  as  compensation  for  those  that  ought  to  be  received 
from  the  Central  Government,  the  funds  destined  to  meet 
the  deficit  in  its  finances. 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE  295 

In  the  year  1905-1906,  the  Government  of  Formosa 
was  in  the  position  to  resign  a  sum  of  about  6,100,000 
yen,  the]  approximate  amount  of  the  subsidies  which  it 
had  the  right  to  receive  from  the  Central  Government, 
to  cover  the  deficit  accruing  since  the  same  administra- 
tion to  that  of  1909-1910. 

It  decided,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  to  pay  out  of  the 
revenues  of  the  islands,  without  having  recourse  to  the 
public  loan  referred  to  above,  the  expenses  of  building 
the  railway  and  port  of  Kelung,  enterprises  whose  cost 
ought  to  have  been  met  by  increasing  the  loan.  From  this 
time  forth  the  deficit  in  the  annual  revenues  was  to  be 
met  by  a  change  in  the  land  tax  and  by  the  adoption  of 
a  tobacco  monopoly. 

Thanks  to  these  measures  the  special  exchequer  of  the 
Government  of  Formosa   gradually  passed  from   a  state 
of  independence  that  was  theoretical  and  legal  to  that 
of    a    real    independence.      During    the    financial    year 
1908-1909   plans   were   drawn   up    for    the    erection    of 
works,  for  utilising  the  watercourses,  for  regulating  the 
Port   of  Taku,    improving  the  production  of  camphor, 
opening  up  new  territories   for  culture,   for  developing 
the    exploitation     of    timber,     and    constructing    rail- 
roads.    For   these   enterprises   a   Government    loan    of 
38,990,000  yen   furnished   the    necessary   sum.     It  was 
decided  that   the   undertakings  should  be    commenced 
during  the  administration  of  1908-1909  and  finished  by 
1923-1924,  and  that  the  loans  should  be  repayable  in 
the   eleven    years    following    their    achievement.     The 
great  north-south  artery  of    the  railway  running  from 
one  extremity  of  the  island   to  the  other  was   finished 
in  April,  1898,  the  total  length  either  for  the  principal 
nne  or  for  the  branch  system  being  277J  miles. 


296  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

As  the  progress  of  the  sugar  industry  affects  the 
economic  development  of  the  rural  classes  no  less 
strongly  than  the  prosperity  of  the  general  finance  of  the 
country,  the  Government  is  occupying  itself  with  largely 
increasing  the  extent  of  the  land  consecrated  to  the 
grov^ing  of  the  sugar-cane  ;  and  the  formation  of  new  com- 
panies after  the  Kusso-Japanese  War,  added  to  the  aug- 
mentation of  capital  of  the  existing  companies,  makes 
provision  for  the  annual  production  of  10,250  tons  of  sugar 
from  the  beginning  for  1908-1910. 

To  assure  also  to  the  industry  an  ample  supply  of  raw 
material,  the  Government  has  increased  the  subventions 
and  allocations  designed  to  benefit  the  sugar  industry,  to 
obtain  new  lands  for  its  culture  in  the  region  of  the 
aborigines,  to  promote  the  navigation  between  the  island 
and  the  metropolis,  and  to  erect  new  buildings. 

This  increase  of  expenditure  will  be  equalised  by  the 
revenue  from  the  excise  tax  on  sugar,  from  the  railways, 
and  the  surplus  sums  of  the  preceding  Budget. 

Ill 

The  first  monopoly  introduced  into  Formosa  was  that 
of  opium,  followed  later  by  that  of  salt,  camphor,  and 
tobacco. 

These  monopolies  were  not  solely  due  to  financial  neces- 
sities. They  were  created  with  the  "  view  of  safeguard- 
ing the  public  health,  of  reviving  industry,  and  of  endow- 
ing the  island  with  an  effective  commercial  capability." 

So  far  as  opium  is  concerned,  it  is  easy  to  see  what 
were  the  issues  of  the  national  health  involved,  but  one 
is  not  clear  with  regard  to  salt,  camphor,  and  tobacco. 
With  regard  to  the  developing  of  private  initiative  in 


THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE  297 

industry  and  commerce  by  the  creation  of  these  monopo- 
lies, this  quahty  is  not  apparent,  and  probably  never 
will  be,  for  the  very  existence  of  a  monopoly  kills  the 
energy  and  initiative  of  individuals. 

IV 

Although  at  the  time  of  the  cession  of  Formosa  no 
organised  monetary  system  existed  in  the  island,  no  great 
inconvenience  resulted  in  the  currency  of  the  chief  towns, 
owing  to  the  smallness  of  the  transactions.  But  with 
their  development  there  arose  the  necessity  of  creating 
banks  as  the  medium  of  the  money  system,  and  the  Bank 
of  Formosa  (Tai  Wan  Ginkô)  was  established.  Then 
the  Bank  of  the  South,  the  Savings  Bank  of  Tai  Wan, 
the  Shokâ  bank,  and  the  Kagi  bank. 

In  1904  and  in  1906  the  Japanese  Government  reformed 
the  old  monetary  system,  and  at  the  present  time  there 
is  the  same  circulation  of  the  Japanese  currency  as  in 
Japan. 

V 

Formerly  the  trade  of  the  island  was  entirely  in  the 
hands  of  the  Japanese.  Owing  as  a  matter  of  fact  to 
the  proximity  of  the  province  of  Fukien  there  was 
constant  communication  by  means  of  junks  between  the 
two  coasts.  By  the  treaty  of  Tien  Tsin  the  ports  of 
Taku,  Anking,  Tamsui,  and  Kelung  were  opened  to 
foreign  trade,  and  this  event  was  the  starting-point  for 
the  trade  of  Formosa  with  Western  nations. 

In  1895,  after  the  treaty  of  Shimonoseki  and  the  sur- 
render of  the  island  to  Japan,  the  Japanese  commenced 
to  establish  themselves  there. 


298  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

During  1908  the  export  trade  reached  to  71,700,000 
yen,  being  an  increase  of  13,300,000  yen  on  the  preceding 
year. 

In  this  figure  the  exports  to  Japan  account  for 
24,400,000  yen,  and  those  to  foreigners  to  9,300,000  yen. 
The  total  exportation  reached  therefore  33,700,000  yen. 
The  imports  from  Japan  amounted  to  20,900,000  yen, 
and  those  from  foreign  countries  to  17,000,000  yen,  yield- 
ing therefore  a  total  of  37,900,000  yen. 

The  surplus  in  exports  was  due  to  rice,  sugar,  and 
tea,  and  notwithstanding  the  diminished  quantity  of 
camphor.  The  increase  in  imports  comes  from  an 
advance  in  the  duty  on  sugar,  machinery,  rails,  cement, 
and  the  materials  for  building. 

VI 

As  the  island  of  Formosa  is  situated  in  part  in  the 
torrid  zone,  and  as  its  soil  is  fertile,  it  is  rich  in  natural 
productions  of  all  sorts.  Eice  grows  everywhere  except  in 
the  mountainous  districts,  and  it  yields  two  crops  every 
year.  The  progress  of  the  irrigation  works  and  the 
perfecting  of  the  methods  of  culture  have  contributed  to  a 
greatly  increased  extension  of  the  rice-fields.  The  quan- 
tity of  rice  sent  to  Japan  in  1908  represented  10,000,000 
yen,  as  against  6,000,000  in  1907. 

The  sugar-cane  culture  has  greatly  developed,  and 
numberless  refineries  have  been  established.  The  value  of 
the  sugar  conveyed  to  Japan  in  1908  rose  to  9,400,000 
yen. 

The  virgin  forests  which  cover  the  entire  centre  of 
the  island  have  not  yet  been  exploited.  They  contain 
cryptomerias,  coniferae    of  all  sorts,  also  the  kinoJci,  or 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  299 

chamaecyparis  obtusa,  a  tree  that  is  greatly  esteemed  in 
Japan. 

Summing  up,  the  island  is  hardly  beginning  to  emerge 
from  its  long  slumber.  Time  is  needed,  and,  even  more, 
money,  to  work  its  natural  wealth,  and  in  the  year 
1908-1909  the  returns  of  the  Government  of  Formosa 
were  33,871,328  yen — that  is  say,  the  Budget  exactly 
balanced.  These  figures  are  furnished  by  the  financial 
reports  of  the  Japanese  Minister,  and  I  give  them 
without  comment. 


VII 

The  island  of  Saghalien,  in  Japanese  Karafuto,  was 
formerly  wholly  a  Japanese  possession.  She  was  ceded 
to  Kussia  in  1875,  consequently  at  a  recent  epoch. 

After  the  war  against  Eussia  the  southern  portion  of 
the  island  was  retroceded  by  this  Power  to  Japan  by  the 
treaty  of  Portsmouth  (United  States).  Saghalien  has 
especially  as  resources  the  sea  and  the  forest.  Nothing 
has  so  far  been  undertaken  in  this  island,  and  it  is  in  the 
observing,  searching,  and  groping  stage. 

A  million  Japanese  families  have  been  transplanted  to 
Karafuto.  They  have  been  supplied  with  grain  and 
cattle,  and  it  looks  as  if  a  large  area  of  the  Japanese  part 
of  the  island  is  suited  for  cultivation  and  pasturage. 

Gold  and  coal  abound,  but  their  working  seems  to  be 
reserved  to  a  far-off  future. 

The  peninsula  of  Kwang  Tong.  This  part  of  the 
Chinese  territory,  at  the  southern  extremity  of  which  is 
situated  the  fortress  of  Port  Arthur  (Lui  chouen 
keou,  kio  jun  ko),  is  now  under  the  control  of  Japan, 
as   a  consequence  of  the  defeat  of  the   Eussians.     The 


300  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

latter  had  taken  the  peninsula  of  Kwang  Tong  with  the 
fortress  of  Port  Arthur  on  lease  for  a  period  of  ninety- 
nine  years  from  China,  and  the  Japanese  have  been  their 
successors  in  assuming  the  lease. 

The  single  port  of  this  territory  is  Dalny  (Tairen), 
declared  a  free  port.  The  Chinese  Maritime  Custom 
House  is  installed  to  collect  the  duties  on  goods  quitting 
the  free  zone  to  enter  China.  The  total  amount  of  the 
exportations  has  risen  to  34,726,896  yen,  and  that  of 
imports  to  31,355,647  yen,  being  a  total  exchange  of 
66,082,543  yen. 


CHAPTEE   XX 

The  Korea  of  to-day  and  yesterday.  The  establishment  of  the  Japanese 
Protectorate — II.  The  military  Eesident  and  the  departments — 
III.  Financial  reform  ;  taxation  ;  the  banks — IV.  The  Japanese  in 
Korea  ;  moral  and  industrial  societies  ;  breeding  and  cultivation — V. 
Korean  trade  :  its  future — VI.  Commerce,  importation,  and  exporta- 
tion for  1908. 


The  kingdom  of  Korea  at  the  present  time  is  a  real 
dependency  of  Japan,  although  up  to  now  it  has  pre- 
served its  King  and  Court.  The  Government  of  the 
Mikado  exercises  its  authority  there  by  the  inter- 
mediary of  a  Eesident  General  representing  the  Pro- 
tectorate. 

Korea  is  a  large  peninsula  which  projects  in  the 
form  of  a  cape  into  the  Eastern  Sea  (Tong  Hai)  between 
China  and  Japan.  The  Sea  of  Japan  washes  it  on  the 
east,  the  Gulf  of  Leao  Tong  separates  it  from  the 
provinces  of  Pe  tche  li  and  from  Chan  Tong  on  the 
western  side.  On  the  north  it  borders  on  the  Man- 
churian  countries  :  on  the  south  it  is  limited  by  the 
Great  Sea,  and  finally  the  river  Yalu  on  the  north-east 
separates  it  from  Leao  Tong.  It  was  formerly  inhabited 
by  different  peoples  and  was  divided  into  numerous 
small  kingdoms  ;  the  three  principal  were  those  of 
Kao  li  (Koraî),  Sin  lo  (Shinra)  and  Pe  tsi  (Hakusai)  so 
often  mentioned  in    Japanese  history. 

301 


302  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

In  the  third  century  a.d.  the  Japanese  Empress  Zingu 
(Zingu  Kôgô)  invaded  the  three  kingdoms,  and  they 
submitted  to  a  tribute  which  was  punctually  sent  every 
year  from  the  port  of  Fusan  to  the  Court  of  the  Mikado, 
then  to  that  of  the  Shoguns.  But  China  regarded  the 
Korean  kingdoms  as  one  of  her  dependencies,  and  in 
1392  she  intervened,  having  always  done  this  whenever 
there  were  internal  revolutions,  and  placed  on  the  throne 
of  Korea — become  by  this  time  a  centralised  country — 
the  dynasty  of  Han.  Eelations  with  Japan  consequently 
weakened,  and  finished  by  completely  ceasing  in  the 
middle  of  the  15th  century. 

The  Japanese,  nevertheless,  recalling  the  great  deeds 
of  their  empress  twelve  centuries  earlier,  dreamed 
always  of  invading  the  peninsula,  and  it  was  the 
famous  Hideyoshi  (Taikosama)  who,  in  1592,  undertook 
a  new  expedition.  For  six  years  the  unhappy  country 
of  Korea  was  delivered  over  to  murder  and  pillage,  the 
Japanese  having  advanced  very  far  north,  and  they 
occupied  all  the  strong  positions. 

At  last  China  rose — she  had  not  then  wholly  lost 
her  military  and  warlike  spirit — flew  to  the  aid  of  the 
Koreans,  drove  the  Japanese  southwards,  and,  in  1598,  back 
to  the  sea.  The  relations  of  Korea  and  Japan  were  thus 
again  broken  off.  They  were  resumed  at  intervals  up  to 
1868,  when  a  Japanese  Ambassador  arrived  to  inform  the 
regent  of  the  kingdom  of  Korea  (the  Tai  wen  Kun) 
of  the  Imperial  Kestoration  and  of  the  revolution  which 
had  just  accomplished  itself  in  Japan.  The  Ambassador 
was  coldly  received.  In  1872  M.  Hanabusa,  and  in  1874 
M.  Moreyama,  were  sent  to  Séoul  to  endeavour  to  renew 
negotiations,  but  they  were  not  successful. 

Where  diplomacy  and  persuasion  failed,  force,  as  ever. 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  303 

succeeded.  In  effect,  a  small  Japanese  warship,  the  U7iio 
Kwan,  was  attacked  opposite  the  large  island  of  Kang 
noa  :  the  Japanese  demanded  reparation  and  addressed 
themselves  to  China.  The  latter,  otherwise  occupied,  and 
having,  further,  disavowed  the  Formosans  in  1874  and  dis- 
avowed Korea  in  1875,  declared  that  she  had  nothing  to 
do  with  their  affairs.  The  Japanese,  thus  reassured,  con- 
cluded with  the  King  of  Korea  a  treaty  which,  first  and 
foremost,  declared  that  Korea  was  an  independent  country 
equal  to  China.  The  ports  of  Tchemulpo,  Fusan,  Gensan 
were  opened  to  Japanese  trade  :  the  capital  Séoul  received 
a  Japanese  Resident  and  the  subjects  of  the  Mikado 
immediately  established  themselves  in  the  country,  then 
open  to  their  activity,  in  considerable  numbers. 

In  1882  the  news  suddenly  arrived  in  Japan  that  M. 
Hanabusa,  the  Eesident  Minister,  had  been  driven  out  of 
Séoul,  the  Japanese  Legation  attacked,  several  officials 
killed,  and  that  the  whole  colony  had  taken  refuge  at 
Tchemulpo.  A  new  Japanese  intervention,  but  also  a 
new  Chinese  intervention  :  the  two  countries  finished  by 
coming  to  an  understanding,  and  Japan  arranged  affairs 
with  Korea,  signing  a  commercial  treaty  that  was  very 
advantageous  and  stipulating  that  a  large  indemnity  must 
be  paid. 

From  1884  to  ]  894  the  Court  of  Korea  was  permanently 
in  revolution.  The  Queen,  Tai  wen  Kun,  the  King  and  a 
certain  Kim  ok  Kiun,  a  revolutionist  and  innovator,  occu- 
pied the  stage.  Kim  ok  Kiun  raised  bands  of  combatants — 
the  Tong  hak — who  ran  over  the  country,  spreading  over  it 
fire  and  blood.  China  and  Japan  sent  troops  ;  there  was  a 
conflict,  and  in  1894,  in  the  month  of  August,  Japan 
declared  war  on  China. 

China  was  defeated,  recognised  the   independence   of 


304  THE    JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

Korea,  and  withdrew  her  troops,  leaving  the  country  under 
the  exclusive  influence  of  Japan.  But  Russia  entered  the 
lines  and  there  were  Russo-Japanese  negotiations  which 
were  abortive  ;  and  the  war  and  the  Treaty  of  Ports- 
mouth are  events  which  I  need  not  recall  here. 

Japan  has  arrived  at  the  goal  it  pursued  :  it  is  master 
of  Korea. 

II 

By  a  convention  concluded  in  August,  1904,  Korea 
undertook  to  make  reforms  in  its  administration.  In 
1905,  another  convention  regulated  in  more  effective 
fashion  the  Japanese  protectorate  by  establishing  the 
Residency-General  and  the  Residencies  of  the  Provinces. 
Prince  Ito  was  pronounced  Resident-General  of  Japan 
in  Korea. 

The  Resident-General  is  directly  responsible  to  the 
Emperor  of  Japan  in  all  that  concerns  foreign  affairs. 
He  communicates  direct  with  the  Minister  for  Foreign 
Affairs  and  the  President  of  the  Council,  who  submit  the 
reports  to  the  Emperor. 

The  foreign  Consulate  in  Korea  receive  their  autho- 
risation from  the  Japanese  Government.  The  Resident- 
General  brings  forward  the  reforms  to  be  executed,  the 
works  to  be  undertaken — in  a  word,  all  the  threads  of 
the  Korean  administration  are  in  his  hands.  Japanese 
residents  are  established  in  all  the  chief  towns  of  the 
provinces. 

in 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  was  to  put  into  order  the 
finances  of  the  country,  then  on  the  verge  of  ruin,  or  at 
least  in  a  state  of  complete  chaos. 


THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE  305 

The  diminution  of  the  productions  of  every  kind,  the 
absence  of  a  fixed  Budget,  the  very  heavy  taxes  which 
were  deducted  with  a  stupid  and  excessive  violence,  had 
all  impoverished  the  Korean  nation.  At  the  end  of  a 
convention  concluded  in  1907,  Japanese  officials  were 
assigned  to  official  positions  in  the  Korean  adminis- 
tration, so  that  they  might  work  in  conjunction  with 
the  Korean  functionaries  to  bring  about  a  good  ad- 
ministration of  the  finances.  A  regular  Budget  was 
established  for  the  first  time  in  1905.  It  yielded  a  sum 
of  7,480,287  yen,  and  that  of  9,556,836  yen  for  expendi- 
ture. The  last  Budget,  that  of  1909-1910,  announced 
the  receipts  had  reached  21,434,723  against  22,268,255 
yen  for  expenditure. 

The  system  of  taxation  followed  for  many  centuries  in 
Korea  is  very  faulty.  In  default  of  any  proper  basis 
for  the  assessment  of  taxes,  the  Government  found  itself 
in  the  position  of  being  unable  to  foresee  the  total 
amount  anticipated  ;  and  on  the  other  hand  the  officials 
individually  charged  with  the  recovery  of  the  tax  had 
recourse  frequently  to  the  most  unjust  extortions.  They 
not  only  allowed  themselves  to  be  corrupted,  but  they 
levied  supplementary  taxes  of  an  illegal  kind  for  their 
own  advantage.  Under  such  conditions  the  population 
could  only  become  more  and  more  impoverished.  It  was 
indispensable,  then,  that  there  should  be  immediate 
reforms  upon  this  point,  that  a  new  system  of  levying 
taxes  justly  should  be  established,  and  the  finances  of  the 
State  placed  upon  a  solid  foundation. 

The  results  yielded  from  the  collection  of  taxes 
during  the  last  administration  were  assigned  as 
follows  : — 


20 


306  THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 

Yen. 

Tax  on  land     5,628,575 

„     „    houses              357,884 

,,     ,,   marine  products       7,584 

„     „    salt       8,958 

„     ,,   mines 34,601 

Custom-house  duties            3,179,888 

Duties  on  tonnage      91,951 

Tax  on  steamers         6,649 

,,     ,,    slaughter-houses      28,674 

,,     ,,    money-lenders          ...         ...         ...  503 

,,     ,,    Ginseng          621 

Arrears  of  taxes  in  preceding  administration  163,166 

Other  taxes      13,183 


Total         9,521,587 

The  monetary  system  of  Korea  has  become  in  every 
respect  similar  to  the  Japanese,  and  the  reform,  effected 
in  a  convenient  way,  without  suppressing  Korean  money 
too  violently,  has  succeeded  admirably.  In  former  times 
and  up  to  recent  years  there  were  no  banks,  properly 
speaking  ;  the  reform  of  finance  has  naturally  necessitated 
the  establishment  of  the  financial  medium  being  con- 
stituted in  a  regular  way. 

The  regulations  for  the  organisation  and  control  of 
banks  were  promulgated  in  1906,  and  at  this  period  a 
Korean  bank  was  installed.  At  the  present  time  three 
Korean  banks  are  operating.  Kanjo  Ginko,  Ten  itchi 
Ginko,  Kan  itchi  Ginko,  with  their  headquarters  at 
Séoul  and  branch  establishments  at  Su  Won,  Ton 
Maku,  Ma  Po,  Nam  Tai  Mun;  and  banks  designed 
to  aid  agriculture  and  industry  have  been  established 
in  various  towns  :  at  Séoul,  Chung  Chu,  Kai  Jyou, 
Kong  Chu,  Kan  Gyou,  Chung  Jyu,  Kai  Syong,  Syang 
Chu,  Shin  Chu,  Masampo,  Yong  Pyen,  Chinampo, 
Hai  Chu,  Poku  Chon,  Sari  Nan,  Nam  Noa,  Choi  Chu  Do, 
Pol  Kyo  Po,  Yong  Sam  Po,  Ham  Heung,  Kyong  Song, 
Hoi  Eyong,  Chong  Jin. 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  307 

In  addition  there  are  three  Japanese  banks  established 
in  Korea  :  the  Dai  itchi  Ginko,  whose  "  bureau  central  " 
is  at  Tokyo  ;  the  Dai  Ju  Hachi  Ginko  at  Nagasaki  ;  and 
the  Dai  go  ju  hachi  Ginko  at  Osaka. 


IV 

The  Japanese  did  not  wait  for  a  protectorate  of  their 
country  over  Korea  before  installing  themselves  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  peninsula  round  Fusan.  Ever  since 
the  first  treaty  in  1876,  a  fairly  large  Japanese  emigration 
had  taken  place  to  this  part,  so  much  so  that  after  some 
years  Fusan  has  a  curious  resemblance  to  a  Japanese 
town. 

At  the  present  time  many  of  the  Mikado's  subjects 
have  undertaken  farming  and  breeding  on  a  large  scale  in 
the  provinces  of  Kyung  San  and  Chulla,  and  instead  of 
contenting  themselves  with  the  little  kitchen-gardens 
which  formerly  satisfied  them,  the  Japanese  colonists  set 
themselves  to  acquiring  vast  domains,  some  quite  remote 
in  the  interior  of  the  country. 

In  addition  to  farming  and  culture,  the  silk  industry  is 
very  successful  in  Korea.  The  climate  there  is  dry  and  the 
rains  are  not  excessive.  The  only  danger  is  in  the  shape 
of  the  parasitic  worms,  which  are  terribly  formidable,  to 
the  degree  of  causing  considerable  loss.  (In  Japan  this 
loss  at  times  is  not  less  than  15  millions  of  yen  every 
year). 

Nevertheless,  in  spite  of  these  unwelcome  beings  and  the 
want  of  skilfulness  of  the  Korean  breeders,  the  cocoon  pays 
well  :  and  it  will  pay  even  better,  and  for  a  more 
adequate  reason,  when  the  Japanese  engaged  in  silk 
culture  have  introduced  scientific  methods.     An  associa- 


308  THE  JAPANESE   EMPIRE 

tion  of  Korean  and  Japanese  ladies  has  already  established 
a  centre  for  the  rearing  at  Séoul,  and  are  meeting  with 
great  success.  The  experimental  culture  of  cotton,  which 
was  tried  in  1905  by  several  eminent  Japanese,  many 
of  them  members  of  the  Government  and  representa- 
tives of  the  Chamber,  has  at  the  end  of  three  years 
yielded  very  satisfactory  results.  Experiments  were 
carried  on  at  Mokpo,  Chi  Nam  Po,  Yong  Sam  Po,  Lagu, 
Konju  and  Kun  San.  Two  varieties  were  planted,  the 
native  cotton  and  the  American  cotton,  and  the  former 
yielded  the  best  profits.  It  is  reckoned  that  the  super- 
ficies planted  in  cotton  is  120,000  hectares,  and  it  is 
believed  that  when  all  the  land  capable  of  receiving 
cotton  is  valued,  a  yield  of  100,000,000  Japanese  pounds 
(Kin =600  grammes)  will  be  secured  for  Korea.  Sup- 
posing the  individual  consumption  of  two  pounds  per 
head,  the  total  for  14,000,000  Koreans  would  be  30,000,000 
pounds,  leaving  a  stock  of  70,000,000  pounds  to  export. 

The  mines,  with  the  exception  of  the  alluvial  gold- 
mines in  the  north  of  the  peninsula,  are  not  yet  sys- 
tematically worked,  whilst  the  fisheries  are  entirely  in 
the  hands  of  the  Japanese. 

A  company  was  formed  in  1908,  with  the  object  of 
exploiting  the  riches  of  Korea,  with  a  capital  of 
10,000,000  yen,  divided  into  200,000  shares  of  60  yen. 
The  Korean  Government  took  60,000  in  return  for  the 
concession  it  made  of  a  certain  area  of  land,  and  the  rest 
was  subscribed  by  the  Japanese.  The  company  was 
intended  to  aid  the  Japanese  colonists  as  well  as  the 
Koreans  themselves.  Its  rights  are  taken  out  for  one 
hundred  years,  and  renewable  with  the  consent  of 
the  Japanese  and  Korean  Governments. 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  309 


The  native  industries  are  entirely  primitive,  and  the 
decorative  industries  that  formerly  flourished  have  long 
sunk  into  complete  decline.  On  the  other  hand,  there 
are  still  productions  that  deserve  attention.  For 
instance,  paper,  leather,  hides,  tobacco,  and  rice-beer. 
The  Koreans  are  very  skilful,  and  their  straw  matting  is 
excellently  manufactured,  and  everything  that  is  woven 
is  cleverly  done  in  Korea.  According  to  the  investiga- 
tions that  have  been  carried  out  with  the  object  of 
finding  out  what  kind  of  industries  would  succeed  in 
Korea,  it  has  been  generally  admitted  that  there  is  a 
great  future  for  the  dressing  of  leathers  and  hides,  the 
manufacture  of  paper,  straw  matting,  and  iodised  chemi- 
cal products.  The  matting,  notably  that  of  the  provinces 
of  Hwanghai  and  Kyongki,  is  much  appreciated,  and 
they  have  a  well-established  reputation.  The  pasturage 
of  cattle  in  the  north  of  the  peninsula  has  also  been 
promoted,  with  the  view  of  creating  the  industry  of 
preserved  beef  ;  but  it  is  permissible  to  doubt  whether, 
if  this  industry  were  ever  installed  in  Korea,  it  would 
offer  serious  rivalry  to  the  corn/pressed,  cooked,  corned 
heef  of  Chicago. 

The  coasts  of  Korea  furnish  perennially  an  abundant 
crop  of  sea-wrack  and  other  sea  plants,  and  there  is  no 
doubt  that  a  quantity  of  iodised  products  could  be 
extracted  from  them. 

With  regard  to  minerals,  copper,  coal,  and  plumbago 
are  abundant  there.  The  most  considerable  deposits  of 
coal  are  found  upon  the  shores  of  the  River  Tadong- 
Kang  (in  Chinese  Ta  Tong  Kiang)  ;  the  seams  are 
richly   supplied,   and  have   a  thickness   of    from  about 


310 


THE  JAPANESE  EMPIRE 


27  feet  to  33  feet.  The  yield  possible  is  estimated  at 
10,000,000  tons;  the  quality  of  the  coal  is  similar  to 
that  of  Karatsu  (Kyûshû). 

Gold  yields  an  annual  production  of  about  4,000,000 
yen  ;  copper  is  likewise  extracted  in  considerable 
quantities. 

VI 

For  the  last  five  years  the  trade  of  Korea  has  given  the 
following  figures  : — 


1904 

Exports. 

Yen. 

...      7,530,715 

1905 

...      6,916,571 

1906 

...       8,902,387 

1907 

...     17,002,234 

1908 

Imports. 

...     14,113,310 

1904 

...    26,805,380 

1905 

... 

...     31,959,582 

1906 

...     29,721,579 

1907 

... 

...     41,436,653 

1908 

...     41,025,523 

The  countries  which  have  the  largest  commercial 
relations  with  Korea  are  naturally  Japan,  to  a  leading 
extent,  then  China. 

Japan  in  1908  comes  with  a  total  export  trade  of 
10,963,363  yen,  and  an  import  trade  of  21,040,465  yen. 
China  follows,  exporting  to  the  value  of  2,247,458  yen, 
and  importing  to  the  value  of  4,882,246  yen.  The 
United  States  and  England  are  next  in  order  with 
import  trade  amounting  to  5  and  6  millions,  the  figures 
representing  their  exports  being  the  insignificant  ones 
of  5,716  yen  for  England,  and  45,106  yen  for  the  United 


THE   JAPANESE   EMPIRE  311 

States.  Germany  realised  in  trade  with  Japan  about 
400,000  yen;  France  did  no  trade  at  all. 

Korea  has  everything  to  gain  by  remaining  under  the 
protectorate  of  Japan.  The  method  and  patience  of  the 
Japanese  will  succeed  in  organising  and  developing  this 
State,  which  up  to  the  present  time  has  remained  in  a 
profoundly  chaotic  condition. 

It  is,  moreover,  certain  that  the  countries  which  have 
been  annexed  by  force  of  arms  to  the  Empire  of  the 
Eising  Sun  will  play  their  part  in  its  civilisation,  and 
participate  in  its  industrial  and  commercial  progress. 
The  Government  and  the  Japanese  people  have  shown 
what  tenacity  in  labour  and  intelligence  in  organisation 
can  effect.  Formosa,  Korea,  Karafuto,  the  Chinese 
Kwang  Tong,  are  in  process  of  development  and 
expansion  under  the  aegis  of  their  conquerors.  The 
Japanese  population  has  already  emigrated  in  consider- 
able numbers  to  this  country,  and  thanks  to  the  activity 
and  energy  of  the  new  colonists,  these  lands,  which  up  to 
now  were  uncultivated  and  abandoned,  are  being  drawn 
into  the  orbit  of  the  general  civilisation.  Japan  has  the 
capacity  to  accomplish  the  task  successfully. 


INDEX 


Abukuna-gawa,  30 
Agriculture,  141 
Aîchi,  56 
Ainus,  33 
Akama-gaseki,  22 
Aki,  52 
Akita,  58 
Amaterasu,  36 
Arashy-ama,   55 
Area,  19 
Army,  127 
Arsenals,  202 
Asakusa,  54 
Asama-yama,  26 
Ashizurimi-saki,  22 
Atsuta,  237 
Awaji,  56 


Bamboo,  140,  169 
Bandai-san,  25 
Banks,  277 
Barley,  143 


Biwa  Lake,  55 
Bizen,  52 
Boat  service,  67 
Buddhism,  47 
Budget,  41,  269 
Bungo,  52 

0 

Camphor,  170 
Capes,  22 
Cattle,  150 
Ceramics,  178 
Cereals,  142 
Character,  36 
Chiba,  101 
Chikugo,  52 
Chikuzen,  52 
Chishima,  52 
Chokai-san,  23 
Chûzenji,  24 
Climate,  19,  20 
Coal,  217,  252 
Colonies,  287 
Commerce  (see  Trade) 
Conifers  {see  Trees) 


313 


314 


INDEX 


Copper,  264 
Corn,  141 
Cost  of  living,  81 
Cotton,  194,  203 
Cruisers  {see  Navy) 
Cryptomeria,  164 
Currency,  27,  116 
Custom  House,  59,  64,  68  {see 
Tariffs) 

D 

Daimyos,  36 
Daiya-gawa,  24 
Duties,  Custom,  &c.,  273 
Dye  industry,  177 

B 

Echigo,  52 
Echizen,  52,  210 
Education,  122 
Ehime,  101 
Electoral  law,  42 
Embroidery,  176 
Emperor,  43 
Engineering,  206,  209 
Enoshima,  107 
Etchû,  52,  57 
Exports,  211 


F 


Family  life,  83 
Festivals,  85 


Finance,  267 

Fisheries,  155 

Pood,  91 

Foreign  trade,  211,  226 

Foreigners,  49 

Forests,  162 

Formosa,  287 

Franco-Japanese  Treaty,  49 

Fruits,  151 

Fuji-kawa,  29 

Fuji-San,  25 

Fukui,  212 

Fukushima,  56 

Fukuyama,  57 

Funerals,  94 

Futahara-yama,  24 

G 

Garrison  {see  Army) 
Geography,  18 
Geological  formation,  250 
Gifu,  59 
Government,  37 
Government  factories,  202 


Habutai,  211 
Hachiman  Temples,  106 
Hakodate,  23,  109 
Hakone,  26,  32,  107 
Haku-san,  27 
Haricot,  144 


INDEX 


315 


Hida,  51 
Higo,  52 
Hikone,  59 
Hiroshima,  57,  113 
Hitachi,  51 
Hitaka,  52 
Hïzen,  52,  56 
Hôei-zan,  26 
Hokkaido,  18,  153,  252 
Hokuroku-dô,  50 
Honjo,  53 
Honshu,  18 
Horse,  149 
Hotels,  75 
Hyôgo,  65 


Ibaraki,  59 
leyasu,  53 
Iga,  51 
lide,  23 

Imperial  Diet,  37 
Imports,  225 
Inabâ,  52 
Inari-gawa,  24 
Industries,  173,  192 
Inner  Sea,  72 
Insm-ance,  279 
Ironclads,  139 
Irozaki,  22 
Ise,  51 
Ishikari,  52 
Ishikawa,  57 


Islands,  18 
Iwaki,  30 
Iwaki-san,  23 
Iwami,  52 
Iwashiro,  52 
Iwati,  60 
Izu,  51 
Izumi,  51 


Japan  (commercial),  281 
Japan  (future  of),  281 
Japan  (political),  280 
Jinmu  Tennô,  34 
Justice,  Courts  of,  40 


K 

Kaga,  212 
Kagoshima,  113 
Kai,  51 

Kamakura,  106 
Kami,  47 
Kamo-gawa,  110 
Kamoimi-saki,  23 
Kana-gawa,  57 
Karafuto  {see  Saghalien) 
Ken,  55 
Kii,  52 

Kiso-gawa,  29 
Kobe,  63,  73 
Kochi,  58 
Koga,  30 


316 


INDEX 


Komango,  24 
Konsei-toge,  25 
Korea,  302 
Kôtsuke,  51 
Kumamoto,  58 
Kuriles,  18 
Kyobashi,  53 
Kyoto,  52,  53,  54,  55, 109 
Kyùshû,  22,  61 


Lacquer,  183 
Land,  146 
Leather,  199 
Living,  cost  of,  80 
Loans,  275 
Lotus,  145 


M 

Mail  boats,  65 
Maize,  144 
Malay,  33 
Malting,  219 
Marine  life,  161 
Marriage,  84 
Matches,  219 
Matsushima,  109 
Matsutate,  24 
Mayebashi,  30,  59 
Messageries  Maritimes,  231 
Metal  Industry,  205 


Military  service,  128 
Mines  and  Mining,  249 
Mino,  51 
Mito,  52 
Miyagi,  58 
Miye,  59 
Mountains,  21 
Mukôjima,  54 
Mulberry,  148 
Musashi,  52 
Mushrooms,  171 
Mutsu,  23 
Myanoshita,  107 


N 

Nagasaki,  56 
Nagato,  52 
Nagoya,  56,  109 
Navigation  Laws,  159,  228 
Navy,  138 
Negritoes,  33 
Nihombashi,  235 
Niigata,  56 
Nikkô,  108 
Nikkô-zan,  23 
Nippon,  34 
Nosafu-saki,  22 


Oats,  142 
Ogasawara,  19 


INDEX 


317 


Oigawa,  29 
Oita,  60 
Oka-yama,  24 
Omanago,  24 
Osaka,  52,  55,  112 
Osami,  52 
Otsu,  59 
Owari,  51 


Paper,  290 
Peoples,  33 
Pescadores,  18 
Petroleum,  255 
Pigs,  151 
Plumbago,  256 
Police,  126 
Population,  99 
Poronai,  153 
Ports,  49 
Post-office,  117 
Pottery,  178 
Preserved  foods,  200 
Press,  125 
Provinces,  51 


R 

Railways,  234 
Recruiting,  135 
Religion,  46 
Rice,  143,  216 


Rikuchû,  52 
Rikuzen,  52 
Riogoku,  93 
Rivers,  28 
Roads,  235 
Routes,  76 
Rubruquis,  17 
Ryûkyû  Islands,  52,  61 


Sabres,  182 
Sado,  56 
Sagami,  51 
Saghalien,  19,  299 
Sakai,  57 
Sait,  161 
Sanshôgatake,  26 
Sapporô,  23 
Satsuma,  28,  52 
Sendai,  58 
Settsu,  51,  56 
Shi,  52 
Shiba,  53 
Shiga,  59 
Shikoku,  22 
Shima,  51 
Shimane,  58 
Shimodzuke,  52 
Shimoniseki,  23 
Shimosa,  51 
Shinano,  29 
Shinano-gawa,  56 


318 


INDEX 


Shintoism,  46 

Shirane,  25 

Shire-ko-saki,  22 

Shizuoka,  69 

Shogun,  35 

Silk,  174,  211 

Socialism,  264 

Soya,  22 

Spinning-mills  {see  Cotton) 

Steam  Navigation  Co.,  67 

Sumida-gawa,  31 

Suô,  60 

Sutsu-no-umi,  24 

Suwa,  29 


T 

Tajima,  52,  56 
Takasaki,  52 
Tamba,  52 
Tango,  52 
Tariff,  232 
Tateshi-yama,  26 
Tateyama,  23 
Taxes,  40 
Tea,  215 

Tea  ceremonial,  92 
Tea-plant,  148 
Temperature,  19 
Temples,  105 
Tenriu-gawa,  29 
Tochigi,  59 
Tokachidaké,  22 


Tôkaidô,  51 
Tokushima,  22 
Tokyo,  52,  53,  54, 104 
Tone-yawa,  30 
Tosa,  52 
Totomi,  51 
Toyama,  57 
Trade,  285 
Tramways,  245 
Trees,  164 
Tsugawa,  23 
Tsuruga,  51 


U 

Ugo,  30 

Unsengatake,  26 
Usen,  52 
Utsonomiya,  59 


Vegetables,  145 
Volcanoes,  27 


W 

Wakamatsu,  206 
Waka-yama,  57 
Weaving,  175 


INDEX 


319 


Weights  and  Measures,  115 
Whale  fishery  (see  Fishing) 
Women,  84 
Workmen,  wages  of,  205 


Yamagata,  60 


Yamaguchi,  60 
Yamanashi,  59' 
Yamashiro,  51 
Yatsugatake,  26 
Yedo,  53 
Yezo,  22 

Yokohama,  55,  74 
Yokosuka,  55 


UNWIN    BEOa?HEES,  LIMITED, 
WOKINQ  AND  LONDON. 


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